Katerina Swanson
Nuclear power is a significant source of energy for many countries, with nuclear power plants generating electricity through controlled nuclear fission chain reactions. However, the challenge of managing spent nuclear fuel and radioactive waste remains a critical issue. Spent nuclear fuel, also known as used nuclear fuel, is created when nuclear fuel is irradiated in a reactor, typically at a nuclear power plant. Since the beginning of nuclear electricity production in 1954 until 2016, approximately 390,000 tonnes of spent fuel have been generated, with about two-thirds stored and one-third reprocessed. The management and disposal of this fuel are complex due to its high levels of radioactivity and the need for long-term planning.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Amount of spent nuclear fuel generated since the start of nuclear electricity production in 1954 to the end of 2016 | 390,000 tonnes |
| Amount of spent nuclear fuel stored in the United States between 1968 and 2017 | 80,000 metric tons of uranium |
| Amount of spent nuclear fuel stored in Illinois and Pennsylvania | More than 17,500 metric tons |
| Amount of spent nuclear fuel stored in New York, North Carolina, and South Carolina | More than 4,000 metric tons |
| Amount of spent nuclear fuel from commercial reactors stored at 75 U.S. sites | 86,000 metric tons |
| Amount of spent nuclear fuel stored on-site at 75 operating or shutdown nuclear power plants in 33 states | 86,000 metric tons |
| Amount of spent nuclear fuel stored annually | 2,000 metric tons |
| Amount of ore required to power a 1 GW plant for a year | 20-40 kt |
| Amount of uranium fuel required to power a 1 GW plant for a year | 27.6 t |
| Amount of spent fuel produced by a 1 GW plant for a year | 27.6 t |
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What You'll Learn
The US has no permanent storage site
Nuclear energy is one of the largest sources of clean power in the world, generating nearly a fifth of America's electricity. However, nuclear power plants produce nuclear waste, which remains dangerously radioactive for thousands of years and requires foolproof storage.
The US currently has no permanent storage site for its nuclear waste, which amounts to over 90,000 metric tons. This waste is currently stored in over 70 locations in 35 states, mostly on the sites of the nuclear reactors that produced it. The Nuclear Waste Policy Act of 1982 required the US Department of Energy to establish a permanent storage facility deep underground, and in 1987, Yucca Mountain in Nevada was chosen as the location. However, this project faced opposition from surrounding communities, and funding was cut off during the Obama administration.
In the absence of a permanent solution, the US government has been paying utility companies to store nuclear waste on the sites of current and former nuclear power plants. This waste is stored in dry casks or pools of water that cool the fuel and shield it from radiation. While this system is currently working, it is only considered sufficient for 100 years.
The US Department of Energy is now exploring the possibility of consolidating nuclear waste at one or more federal interim storage facilities. However, some experts argue that this is just a temporary measure and that a permanent solution is needed. The slow pace of progress on a permanent storage solution is attributed to the challenge of designing a facility that will be protected for millions of years.
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Nuclear fuel rods become progressively more radioactive
The nuclear fuel used in reactors requires concentrated uranium (enriched uranium), which is further processed to create nuclear fuel. The enriched uranium is encased in fuel rods that are placed in a reactor's fuel assembly to generate electric power. Each fuel assembly is typically used for a cycle of 18 to 24 months.
Once the fuel assemblies have been used in the reactor, they become highly radioactive and must be removed and submerged in a pool of water for several years at the reactor site. This process serves to cool the fuel and block the release of radiation. The water in these spent fuel pools resembles swimming pools and provides additional shielding from radiation.
After a few years, the spent fuel cools down and can be moved to a dry cask storage container at the power plant site. Many reactor operators store their older, spent fuel in special air-conditioned concrete or steel containers. The final step in the nuclear fuel cycle is to collect the spent fuel assemblies from the interim storage sites for final disposition in a permanent underground repository.
The management of spent nuclear fuel is a critical aspect of the peaceful use of nuclear technology. While the safe and effective management of radioactive waste has made significant progress, the prolonged storage periods caused by limited disposal capacity and recycling capabilities have led to a global need for additional storage capacity.
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Nuclear fuel cycle: producing, using, disposing of uranium fuel
The nuclear fuel cycle involves a series of industrial processes that harness electricity from uranium in nuclear power reactors. It starts with the mining of uranium and ends with the disposal of nuclear waste. The front end of the cycle involves mining, milling, conversion, enrichment, and fuel fabrication. Uranium is mined and milled to create a black or brown substance called yellowcake (U3O8). This is then converted into uranium hexafluoride (UF6) gas at a converter facility. The gas is enriched and shipped to a fuel fabrication facility where it is heated and chemically processed into uranium dioxide powder. The powder is then pressed into ceramic pellets, which are encased in metal tubes to form fuel rods. These rods are arranged into a fuel assembly and placed in a reactor.
The back end of the nuclear fuel cycle involves temporary storage, reprocessing, and recycling before the waste is disposed of. Once the fuel assemblies become highly radioactive, they are removed from the reactor and placed in temporary storage. The spent fuel continues to emit heat from the decay of radioactive elements, so it is stored in steel-lined concrete pools surrounded by water to cool and block radiation. After a few years, the fuel is moved to dry storage casks at the power plant site. The fuel can be reprocessed to recover any remaining uranium for use in a new fuel assembly, although this is not permitted in the United States.
Spent nuclear fuel can be recycled to create new fuel and byproducts, and it is considered a valuable resource by some in the industry. More than 90% of its potential energy remains in the fuel even after five years of operation in a reactor. However, the lack of disposal capacity and limited recycling options have resulted in a need for additional storage capacity worldwide. Several countries are building new storage facilities, and the U.S. Department of Energy is exploring the possibility of consolidating spent fuel at federal interim storage facilities.
The management of spent nuclear fuel is crucial for the peaceful use of nuclear technology. Since the start of nuclear electricity production in 1954 until the end of 2016, approximately 390,000 tonnes of spent fuel were generated globally. The successful management of radioactive waste and spent nuclear fuel ensures safe and effective low-carbon energy production, as well as the continued use of nuclear technology in medicine and industry.
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The US government has paid reactor owners $9 billion for storage
Nuclear energy is one of the largest sources of emissions-free power in the world, generating nearly a fifth of America's electricity and half of its clean energy. However, this process creates spent or used nuclear fuel, which is stored at commercial nuclear power plants. As of 2017, there were about 86,000 metric tons of spent nuclear fuel from commercial reactors stored at 75 U.S. sites, with this amount growing by about 2,000 metric tons each year. This fuel is highly dangerous if not managed properly, and policymakers have been at an impasse over how to dispose of it since the licensing of the Yucca Mountain repository stopped in 2010.
The US government has paid reactor owners about $9 billion for storage, but a permanent solution is yet to be found. Experts argue that Congress should amend the Nuclear Waste Policy Act of 1982 (NWPA) to authorize the Department of Energy (DOE) to implement a new consent-based process for siting consolidated interim storage and permanent geologic repository facilities. The DOE began working on this process in 2015, but it has not yet been finalized.
In the meantime, the spent fuel can safely stay at reactor sites or future consolidated interim storage facilities until a permanent disposal solution is determined. Over the last 55 years, more than 2,500 cask shipments of spent fuel have been transported across the United States without causing any harm to the environment or the public. The fuel is shipped in transportation casks designed to withstand various accidents, including water immersion, impact, punctures, and fires.
The management of spent nuclear fuel is a global issue, with several countries exploring solutions such as deep geological repositories (DGRs) and centralized national facilities. The successful management of this fuel is essential to support the peaceful use of nuclear technology for energy production, medicine, and industry.
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Deep geological repositories for disposal
Since the start of nuclear electricity production in 1954, about 390,000 tonnes of spent nuclear fuel have been generated up to the end of 2016. While there is significant progress in the safe and effective management of radioactive waste and spent nuclear fuel, the growing number of countries using nuclear technology to generate electricity and radioactive material for other purposes has resulted in the need for additional storage capacity worldwide.
Deep geological repositories (DGRs) are one method of managing radioactive waste and spent nuclear fuel. DGRs are constructed underground, usually at a depth of several hundred metres or more below the surface in a stable rock formation. The overarching objective of a deep, geological engineered emplacement of radioactive waste is that the radioactivity remains isolated and contained from the biosphere until it has decayed to safe levels. The process of selecting appropriate deep final repositories is underway in several countries, including the United States, Finland, France, Sweden, Switzerland, Canada, and the United Kingdom.
Finland's Onkalo site, based on KBS-3 technology, is the closest to becoming operational among repositories worldwide. Posiva began construction of the site in 2004 and expected to begin operations in 2023. In 2022, approval was granted for the construction of another direct disposal facility using KBS-3 technology on the site of the Forsmark nuclear power plant in Sweden. In 2024, the NWMO selected the Wabigoon Lake Ojibway Nation-Ignace area as the site for Canada's deep geological repository for used nuclear fuel. The Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP) in the United States is the only currently operating deep geological repository, but it is for the long-term management of a different type of radioactive waste resulting from defence programs.
Deep geological disposal is seen as particularly beneficial over surface or near-surface disposal due to the avoidance of inadvertent human intrusion. The conversion of existing underground mines offers an alternative to the development of new purpose-built facilities for the disposal of wastes with no or negligible heat-generating capacity. However, there is an unavoidable degree of uncertainty in our ability to forecast the likely integrity of engineered systems, geological stability, and the structures and priorities of future societies. Thus, the design of a geological disposal facility (GDF) must accommodate potential changes while ensuring that any dispersion of waste that might occur in the future does not pose unacceptable health risks to future generations.
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Frequently asked questions
The amount of spent nuclear fuel created each year is not fixed. However, the amount of spent nuclear fuel in the United States has grown by about 2,000 metric tons each year and stood at about 86,000 metric tons in 2014.
Spent nuclear fuel, also known as used nuclear fuel, is nuclear fuel that has been irradiated in a nuclear reactor and is no longer useful in sustaining a nuclear reaction.
Spent nuclear fuel is stored in wet pools or dry casks. Wet pools were more common but many sites are reaching capacity. Dry casks are increasingly used in most nuclear reactor sites, storing 50% of spent fuel in 2021.
Spent nuclear fuel is extremely dangerous if not managed properly. It is a prime source of high-level radioactive waste and poses significant environmental, health, and security risks.
The future of spent nuclear fuel management is uncertain. Experts have recommended that Congress amend the Nuclear Waste Policy Act of 1982 to authorize the Department of Energy to implement a new consent-based process for siting consolidated interim storage and permanent geologic repository facilities.
