Mercedes Mullins
The amount of extra fuel an aircraft carries depends on several factors, including the airline, the aircraft type, the flight duration, and the destination. While some flights may carry just enough fuel to reach their destination, most flights carry additional fuel to account for unforeseen circumstances, such as airport closures or aircraft emergencies. This extra fuel, known as contingency fuel, is typically calculated based on statistical data and previous flight experience. The final decision regarding extra fuel rests with the Captain, who discusses the requirements with the First Officer before the flight.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Decision-maker for the amount of fuel to be carried | Captain of the aircraft |
| Minimum contingency fuel | 5 minutes at holding speed at 1500 ft clean at Planned Landing Weight |
| Additional fuel | Planned and loaded if the existing total fuel is insufficient to cater to an engine failure or de-pressurisation at the most critical point along the route |
| Fuel for APU burn, engine start, and taxi out | 300-1500 kg |
| Ferry fuel | A few thousand pounds |
| Fuel for alternates | 45 minutes reserve |
| Fuel for holding | 15-30 minutes |
| Fuel for long-haul flights | Additional fuel leading to higher fuel consumption |
| Fuel for short-haul flights | Very little excess fuel |
| Fuel for multiple reserves | Yes |
| Fuel for climb, cruise, descent, and approach | Yes |
| Fuel for landing at the selected alternate airport | Yes |
| Fuel for economic fuel tankering | Yes |
| Fuel for operational fuel tankering | Yes |
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Minimum fuel requirements
The minimum fuel requirements for an aircraft are set by regulators such as EASA and the FAA. Airlines are required to carry substantially more fuel than is needed to get from the departure point to the destination, in case of emergencies or unexpected events such as airport closures. Commercial flights typically carry at least one hour's worth of additional fuel on top of the fuel required to reach the destination. The final decision on how much fuel to carry rests with the captain of the aircraft, who may increase the amount of fuel carried based on circumstances.
The minimum amount of fuel to be carried is influenced by factors such as aircraft performance, age, and weight, as well as expected meteorological conditions along the route. The fuel policy, based on these factors, must be outlined in the airline's operations manual. The fuel for a commercial flight is categorised into various types, including taxi fuel, trip fuel, contingency fuel, alternate fuel, final reserve fuel, additional fuel, and extra fuel.
Contingency fuel is an important aspect of minimum fuel requirements. It is typically calculated as 5% of the total trip fuel, ensuring that the aircraft has enough fuel to divert to an alternate airport in case of an emergency. This contingency fuel can be reduced through inflight replanning, where an aerodrome closer to the departure or destination is selected.
Final reserve fuel is the absolute minimum fuel required for an aircraft to remain airborne safely. Pilots should not deplete the fuel load to this level, and if this situation arises, a mayday should be declared. Additionally, certain operations, such as ETOPS, require airlines to carry extra fuel when flying specific routes to cater to potential engine failure or loss of pressurisation.
While the minimum fuel requirements are regulated, the actual amount of extra fuel carried can vary. Some airlines may carry only the minimum required fuel, while others may opt for a higher amount to ensure greater safety margins.
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Alternate airports
The amount of extra fuel that airplanes carry depends on various factors, including the type of aircraft, the distance travelled, and the specific regulations of the airline and the country. Here is some information regarding alternate airports and the amount of extra fuel carried by airplanes:
- Alternate Airports: In case of unforeseen circumstances, such as poor weather, airport closure, or an incident at the destination airport, airplanes may need to divert to an alternate airport. Each flight typically plans for a potential alternate airport as a precautionary measure. The extra fuel carried must be sufficient for the airplane to climb out from the original destination, fly to the alternate airport, and land there.
- Fuel Requirements for Alternate Airports: The amount of extra fuel needed for alternate airports is calculated to ensure the airplane has enough fuel to reach the alternate aerodrome or destination aerodrome, whichever is closest. This calculation is based on the fuel required for the climb, cruise, descent, and approach to the alternate airport. The minimum fuel requirement for alternate airports is typically calculated as 30 minutes of fuel holding at 1500 feet in a clean configuration at the planned landing weight.
- Contingency Fuel: Contingency fuel is an essential part of the fuel calculation for alternate airports. The minimum contingency fuel requirement is typically 5% of the total trip fuel. This fuel is meant to cover unforeseen delays and variations from the planned operation, such as unexpected changes in wind, temperature, or air traffic control restrictions.
- Additional Fuel: In certain situations, additional fuel may be carried at the captain's discretion. For example, during ETOPS (Extended-range Twin-engine Operational Performance Standards) operations, additional fuel is required to divert to an ETOPS alternate airport in case of engine failure or loss of pressurization. The amount of additional fuel can vary depending on the captain's judgment and the specific circumstances of the flight.
- Fuel for Diversion: If no alternate airport is designated for the flight, the diversion fuel figure is replaced by a requirement for 15 minutes of holding fuel at 1500 feet above the destination airfield in standard conditions.
- Reducing Contingency Fuel: In some cases, the amount of contingency fuel can be reduced by utilizing an aerodrome closer to the origin than the destination as a refueling stop. This allows for a lower contingency fuel requirement while still ensuring sufficient fuel for the overall journey.
The exact amount of extra fuel carried for alternate airports can vary based on the specific circumstances of each flight, the airline's policies, and regulatory requirements. These factors are carefully considered by pilots and dispatchers when planning fuel loads to ensure the safe operation of flights and the ability to divert to alternate airports when necessary.
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Ferry fuel
The amount of fuel an aircraft carries depends on several factors, including the aircraft's type, flight distance, weather conditions, and weight of passengers and cargo. The fuel load is typically calculated by a flight planner or the pilot, and it is the captain's responsibility to decide how much fuel should be carried for a flight.
Typically, commercial flights carry at least one hour's worth of additional fuel on top of what is required to reach their destination. This extra fuel is used for any alternates, with a 45-minute reserve, and an extra 15-30 minutes of fuel for holding. In some cases, aircraft may carry a few thousand pounds of ferry fuel, depending on the airline and equipment.
The ferry fuel load is calculated based on the planned landing weight minus contingency fuel. If no alternate airport is planned, the diversion fuel figure is replaced by 15 minutes of holding fuel at 1500 feet above the destination airfield. This ensures that the aircraft has enough fuel to cover unforeseen variations from the planned operation, such as different wind or temperature conditions or air traffic control restrictions.
Overall, the amount of ferry fuel carried by an aircraft is a critical aspect of aviation safety, ensuring that aircraft have the necessary fuel to handle unexpected situations and reach their destinations safely.
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Fuel tankering
While fuel tankering is economically beneficial, it is environmentally detrimental. The extra weight from the excess fuel leads to increased fuel consumption and carbon emissions. Research by European ATC agency Eurocontrol found that 15% of flights in the European Civil Aviation Conference (ECAC) area use full fuel tankering, resulting in an additional 142kg of CO2 emissions for a 300nm flight. This practice is particularly common on European short-haul routes due to the varying costs of fuel between airports.
To address the environmental impact of fuel tankering, the European Commission (EC) has proposed an "anti-tankering" provision as part of the ReFuelEU initiative. This provision aims to ensure that airlines uplift at least 90% of the fuel needed for outbound flights from a given Union airport, limiting the amount of tankering allowed. The ReFuelEU proposal also includes the introduction of Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF) mandates in large and medium "Union airports", which will help homogenise airport fuel prices and reduce the economic incentive for tankering.
Additionally, fair carbon pricing that penalises the additional CO2 emissions from tankering fuel consumption can further discourage the practice. According to the EC's estimates, with the combination of SAF mandates and fair carbon pricing, the extra fuel consumption from intra-European tankering could decrease by 30% and 42% in 2030 and 2035, respectively.
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Fuel efficiency
To optimize efficiency and ensure safety, commercial aircraft engage in meticulous fuel calculations. They typically carry at least one hour's worth of additional fuel beyond what is required to reach their destination. This extra fuel, known as "contingency fuel," caters to unforeseen circumstances like delays, holding patterns, and unexpected diversions. Regulations mandate a minimum contingency fuel of at least 5% of the total fuel needed for the trip, ensuring aircraft can handle unexpected events without running low on fuel.
The fuel efficiency of an aircraft can be improved by enhancing aerodynamics, reducing weight, and improving engine brake-specific fuel consumption and propulsive efficiency. For instance, the Airbus A380 offers a 20% increase in per-passenger fuel efficiency compared to the older 747. Additionally, the use of kerosene-based fuels in large planes improves efficiency due to their higher flash point compared to gasoline.
Despite improvements in fuel efficiency, the growth of air travel outpaces these gains. This discrepancy contributes to rising CO2 emissions and climate sustainability challenges. While low-cost carriers' higher seat density can enhance fuel economy and lower emissions per passenger-kilometer, the resulting increase in flight frequency can lead to higher overall emissions.
To address sustainability concerns, airlines employ strategies to reduce fuel costs and consumption. These include block-purchasing fuel at a set price, bidding on the most fuel-efficient routes, and adopting more fuel-efficient aircraft designs, such as turboprop airliners or blended wing bodies (BWB).
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Frequently asked questions
The amount of extra fuel an airplane carries depends on the airline, the country the aircraft is flying to, and the pilot. Airlines are required to carry substantially more fuel for a flight than is required to get from one place to another. This is in case of unforeseen circumstances, such as an airport closure or aircraft emergency. Typically, airplanes carry at least an extra hour's worth of fuel, but this is often increased depending on the day's circumstances.
The longer the flight and the more remote the destination, the more fuel loads need to be included before departure. Fuel loads are required for the plane to taxi, climb, cruise, descend, and multiple reserves. The fuel used for these purposes can add up, especially for airports with long taxi routes.
Long-haul flights need to carry additional fuel, which leads to higher fuel consumption. For example, a Boeing 777-300 can fly 3,000 nautical miles (5,600 km) before it becomes more fuel-efficient to make a halfway stop to refuel.
Airlines will sometimes carry more fuel if it is more cost-effective to do so. If the fuel costs at the departure airport are lower than at the destination, it may be cheaper to carry extra fuel and not have to refuel at the destination. Additionally, if the plane is making multiple short hops, filling the fuel tanks can lead to a faster turnaround.
