Rajan Wilcox
Hydrogen fuel cells are an efficient and clean energy source that can be used for a variety of applications, from powering electric vehicles to providing electricity directly to the utility grid. The amount of electricity produced by a hydrogen fuel cell depends on various factors, including the efficiency of the fuel cell, which is typically between 40% and 60% but can be higher under certain conditions. For example, a fuel cell with an efficiency of 51% would require 94 kg of hydrogen to run a 200 kW fuel cell for 8 hours. Hydrogen fuel cells work by combining hydrogen and oxygen to generate electricity, heat, and water through an electrochemical reaction, and they can produce electricity continuously as long as a fuel source is provided.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| How a fuel cell works | Fuel cells use the chemical energy of hydrogen and an oxidizing agent (usually oxygen) to produce electricity through a pair of redox reactions. |
| Fuel cell composition | Fuel cells consist of an anode, a cathode, and an electrolyte. |
| Fuel cell efficiency | Individual fuel cells produce about 0.7 volts of electricity. Fuel cell efficiency ranges from 40% to 60%. However, efficiencies of up to 85% can be achieved with cogeneration schemes. |
| Fuel cell applications | Fuel cells can be used in transportation, buildings, and long-term energy storage. They can power systems ranging from laptops to utility power stations. |
| Fuel cell benefits | Fuel cells are clean, efficient, reliable, and quiet. They do not need periodic recharging and can operate at higher efficiencies than combustion engines. |
| Fuel cell size and power | Fuel cell systems vary in size and power, from electric vehicle engines to large-scale, multi-megawatt installations providing electricity directly to the grid. |
| Fuel cell durability | The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) has set targets for fuel cell lifetime: 8,000 hours for light-duty vehicles, 30,000 hours for heavy-duty trucks, and 80,000 hours for distributed power systems. |
| Hydrogen fuel consumption | The amount of hydrogen fuel required depends on the efficiency of the fuel cell, which is higher at the beginning of its life. The efficiency of a new fuel cell is approximately 51%, while an older fuel cell has an efficiency of approximately 45%. |
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What You'll Learn
Fuel cell efficiency
Fuel cells are a clean and efficient energy source that can power systems as large as a utility power station and as small as a laptop computer. They are electrochemical cells that convert the chemical energy of a fuel (often hydrogen) and an oxidizing agent (often oxygen) into electricity.
The efficiency of a fuel cell is generally between 40% and 60%. However, if waste heat is captured in a cogeneration scheme, efficiencies of up to 85% can be obtained. The energy efficiency of a fuel cell depends on several factors, including the type of fuel cell, the quality of the fuel, and the operating temperature. For example, phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFCs) operate at efficiencies of 40-50%, while high-temperature fuel cells can reach efficiencies of over 60%.
The efficiency of a fuel cell also depends on its age, with new fuel cells having higher efficiencies than older ones. Original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) refer to the efficiency of a new fuel cell as the "beginning of life" (BOL) efficiency, which is approximately 51%. As the fuel cell ages and nears the end of its life, the efficiency decreases to approximately 45%, known as the "end of life" (EOL) efficiency.
Research and development efforts are focused on improving fuel cell efficiency and performance through the use of innovative materials and integration strategies. This includes developing more efficient and durable ion-exchange membrane electrolytes, improving membrane electrode assemblies (MEAs) with high power density, and designing stacks with high efficiency at rated power.
Fuel cells offer several advantages over conventional combustion-based technologies, including higher efficiencies, lower operating costs, and reduced emissions. They can also provide improved reliability and scalability, making them a desirable alternative energy source for a growing number of applications.
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Electrochemical reactions
A fuel cell is an electrochemical cell that can produce electricity through a pair of redox reactions. It is similar to a battery, but unlike batteries, fuel cells do not run out or need recharging. Instead, they require a continuous supply of fuel and oxygen to function. The fuel used is often hydrogen, which combines with an oxidizing agent, typically oxygen, to generate electricity. This process involves the transfer of electrons (charges) between an electrode surface and a chemical species adjacent to the electrode. The produced current depends on the rate of the electrochemical reaction, and increasing this rate improves the fuel cell's performance.
The electrochemical reactions in fuel cells occur simultaneously on both sides of a membrane, the anode, and the cathode. At the anode, a catalyst causes the fuel to undergo oxidation reactions that generate positively charged ions (protons) and electrons. The ions then move from the anode to the cathode through the electrolyte, while the electrons flow from the anode to the cathode through an external circuit, creating a flow of electricity. This external circuit is an essential distinction between electrochemical reactions and ordinary chemical reactions, where charge transfer occurs directly without the liberation of free electrons.
At the cathode, another catalyst facilitates the reaction between the ions, electrons, and oxygen, resulting in the formation of water and possibly other products. This reaction can also produce heat, which can be captured and used for heating water in micro-combined heat and power (m-CHP) applications. The efficiency of this process can reach 80-90% at the unit, excluding production and distribution losses.
The power (P) produced by a fuel cell is calculated by multiplying the voltage (V) by the current (I) at which it operates, measured in watts (W). The rate of the reaction can be increased by catalysts such as platinum or nickel, which improve the fuel cell's performance. However, platinum is one of the most significant cost components of direct hydrogen-fuelled polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells.
Overall, fuel cells offer a clean, quiet, and efficient power production method, with the only byproduct of a hydrogen fuel cell being water. They have been used in various applications, including transportation, industrial/commercial/residential buildings, and long-term energy storage.
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Hydrogen fuel
A fuel cell consists of an anode, a cathode, and an electrolyte membrane. Hydrogen is fed to the anode, and oxygen is fed to the cathode. At the anode, a catalyst splits the hydrogen molecules into electrons and positively charged protons. The protons pass through the porous electrolyte membrane, while the electrons are forced through an external circuit, creating a flow of electricity. The protons and electrons then combine with oxygen at the cathode to produce water molecules and heat.
The amount of electricity produced by a hydrogen fuel cell depends on various factors, including the efficiency of the fuel cell and the amount of hydrogen fuel available. A typical fuel cell has an energy efficiency of between 40% and 60%. However, if waste heat is captured, efficiencies of up to 85% can be achieved. Individual fuel cells produce a small electrical potential of about 0.7 volts, so multiple cells are often stacked to create sufficient voltage for specific applications.
The first fuel cells were invented by Sir William Grove in 1838, and the first commercial use of hydrogen fuel cells came in 1932 with the invention of the hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell by Francis Thomas Bacon. Bacon's alkaline fuel cell, also known as the Bacon fuel cell, has been used by NASA since the 1960s to power satellites and space capsules. Hydrogen fuel cells have a wide range of applications, including providing power for transportation, buildings, and long-term energy storage. They are also used in the Apollo space program and can power systems as large as a utility power station or as small as a laptop computer.
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Fuel cell applications
Fuel cells have a wide variety of applications due to their ability to use a diverse range of fuels and feedstocks. They can be used to power systems as large as a utility power station and as small as a laptop computer.
Transportation
Fuel cells can be used to power vehicles across multiple sectors, including cars, trucks, ships, and aircraft. They can be a cost-competitive alternative to traditional lead-acid batteries, especially for vehicles that operate continuously, such as forklifts. Fuel cells can be rapidly refuelled, eliminating the time and cost associated with battery swapping and charging. Additionally, fuel cells maintain steady power output throughout their entire operation, whereas battery-powered vehicles may experience a decrease in performance as the battery charge diminishes. Furthermore, fuel cells can operate in a wide temperature range, including freezing temperatures, making them suitable for freezer warehouses.
Backup Power
Fuel cells can provide emergency backup power for critical communications and "critical load" facilities, such as data centres, financial processing centres, defence communications facilities, air traffic control centres, hospital intensive-care units, and prisons. Fuel cells offer reliable, grid-independent power with reduced emissions compared to conventional power technologies.
Stationary Power Generation
Fuel cells can be used for stationary power generation, providing primary power, heating, and cooling for offices, data centres, and other facilities. They can also be integrated into microgrids and feed into the utility-scale power production grid.
Industrial, Commercial, and Residential Buildings
Fuel cells can provide power for industrial, commercial, and residential buildings, offering a cleaner and more efficient alternative to traditional combustion-based technologies.
Long-term Energy Storage
Fuel cells can be used for long-term energy storage in reversible systems, providing power to the grid when needed.
The versatility and environmental benefits of fuel cells make them a key component in the transition to more sustainable energy sources.
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Fuel cell costs
Fuel cells are electrochemical cells that use hydrogen fuel and oxygen to generate electricity through a pair of redox reactions. They are unique in their ability to cleanly and efficiently produce electricity for a wide range of applications, from utility power stations to laptops. Fuel cells have several advantages over traditional combustion-based technologies, including higher efficiency and the direct conversion of chemical energy into electrical energy.
The cost of fuel cells varies depending on their type, output power, and specific requirements. For educational purposes, a PEM Fuel Cell with an output power of 0.27W can be purchased for as little as $60. This miniature fuel cell is perfect for teaching children about hydrogen technology and renewable energy.
For more advanced applications, fuel cell prices can range from $450 to over $20,000. The H-12 fuel cell stack, with a rated power of 12W, is suitable for classroom demonstrations and basic domestic appliances, and it starts at around $450. The H-100 fuel cell stack, with a rated power of 100W, is designed for research and personal applications, such as powering small motorboats. Its price starts at approximately $2,100.
The 2.5kW T-Series fuel cell, designed for telecommunications and backup power, typically costs between $10,000 and $15,000. This system offers reliable connectivity and power during outages. For even higher power requirements, the 10kW Liquid Cooled FC System VL, an entry-level liquid-cooled fuel cell stack, can electrify all-terrain vehicles, tractors, and more.
Research and development efforts are ongoing to reduce the cost of fuel cells and improve their efficiency and durability. Platinum, a significant cost component in direct hydrogen-fuelled polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells, is being addressed through strategies to reduce its content and explore alternative catalysts. Additionally, advancements in ion-exchange membrane electrolytes and membrane electrode assemblies aim to enhance performance while lowering costs. These initiatives strive to make fuel cells a more economically viable option for various applications.
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Frequently asked questions
Hydrogen fuel cells produce around 0.7 volts of electricity, so multiple cells are often stacked together to create sufficient voltage.
The only byproducts of hydrogen fuel cells are heat, water vapour, and small amounts of nitrogen dioxide and other emissions, depending on the fuel source.
Hydrogen molecules are split into electrons and protons at the anode. The electrons are forced through a circuit, generating electricity, while the protons pass through a membrane to the cathode, where they unite with the electrons and oxygen to produce water and heat.
Hydrogen fuel cells have an energy efficiency of between 40% and 60%. However, if waste heat is captured, efficiencies of up to 85% can be achieved.
The amount of hydrogen required depends on the efficiency of the fuel cell and its capacity. For example, to run a 200 kW fuel cell for 8 hours with an efficiency of 51%, you would need 94 kg of hydrogen.
