Katerina Swanson
The countries with the largest fossil fuel CO2 emissions have varied over time, with some countries reducing their emissions while others have increased them. The largest contributors to cumulative CO2 emissions from 1850 to 2021 were the United States, China, Russia, Brazil, and Indonesia. As of 2023, the five countries with the highest emissions are China, the United States, India, Russia, and Japan, with China's emissions being 15% higher than those of all other developed economies combined.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Largest CO2 emitters in 2023 | China, the United States, India, the EU27, Russia, and Brazil |
| Countries with the highest emissions historically | The US, China, Russia, Brazil, and Indonesia |
| Largest CO2 emitter in 2023 | China |
| Primary source of CO2 emissions in China | Fossil fuels, coal, and imported oil |
| US ranking in CO2 emissions | Second |
| Primary source of CO2 emissions in the US | Gasoline-fueled transportation industry |
| Country with the highest emissions per capita | Palau |
| Countries with emissions close to the global average | Portugal, France, and the UK |
| Countries with emissions higher than the global average | Germany, the Netherlands, and Belgium |
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What You'll Learn
China's coal reliance
China has the largest CO2 emissions in the world, but it also has the second-largest population. When considering CO2 emissions per capita, China's levels are significantly lower than those of the United States and other countries.
China's historical use of coal dates back thousands of years, with historians suspecting that ancient Chinese people were involved in surface mining as early as 3490 BC. In the pre-modern era, coal use was limited by technological constraints and low demand. However, in the late 11th century, a timber shortage in northern China led to a rapid expansion in coal mining and consumption.
Today, China is the largest producer and consumer of coal and coal power globally. It produces approximately 4.8 billion tons of coal annually, accounting for over half of the global total. In 2024, coal was responsible for about 59% of China's electricity generation. Despite significant additions to clean energy infrastructure, China's reliance on coal remains entrenched.
In recent years, China has experienced a "resurgence" in the construction of new coal-fired power plants, reaching a 10-year high in 2024. This trend risks undermining the country's clean energy progress and delaying the transition to a cleaner energy mix. Coal mining companies play a dominant role in financing these new coal power projects, driving up coal demand and reinforcing China's reliance on this fossil fuel.
To reduce its dependence on coal and meet its carbon emissions goals, China can consider implementing policies such as ending new coal plant approvals and reforming the power market and grid. While China has set ambitious targets for carbon emissions, the continued expansion of coal projects solidifies coal's position as a major source of electricity in the country.
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US gasoline-fuelled transport
The United States is responsible for the largest share of historical carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. Since 1850, the US has released over 509 GtCO2, which is associated with about 0.2C of warming to date. The US has the highest per capita CO2 emissions in 2023, at 13.83.
The transportation sector is the largest source of CO2 emissions in the US, constituting two-fifths of domestic emissions from burning fossil fuels. Motor vehicles accounted for 83% of CO2 emissions from transportation in 2019. The average passenger vehicle emits about 400 grams of CO2 per mile, and every gallon of gasoline burned creates about 8,887 grams of CO2.
In 2023, motor gasoline and diesel fuel consumption in the US transportation sector accounted for about 31% of total US energy-related CO2 emissions. CO2 emissions from motor gasoline consumption accounted for about 22%, while diesel fuel consumption accounted for about 9%. The combined consumption of motor gasoline and diesel fuel accounted for about 80% of total US transportation sector CO2 emissions.
Gasoline-powered vehicles produce other greenhouse gases (GHGs) in addition to CO2, such as methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O). The production and distribution of gasoline also contribute to GHG emissions. However, the use of electric vehicles (EVs) is expected to contribute to greater emissions reductions in the coming decades as the electric power sector becomes less carbon-intensive.
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India's natural gas plans
India's natural gas reserves stand at 1.3 trillion cubic metres (TCM), constituting 0.7% of global reserves, and are expected to last at least 56 years at the current production rate. The country aims to increase the share of natural gas in its energy mix to 15% by 2030, up from 6.2% currently, which will require nearly quadrupling annual gas consumption. This target is dependent on lower global liquefied natural gas (LNG) prices, which would make gas-fired electricity generation more competitive. India's domestic natural gas output is projected to lag until 2030, doubling the demand for imported LNG.
To achieve its natural gas targets, India must address several challenges. Firstly, limited infrastructure for transporting gas from terminals and higher logistical and regasification costs are hindering natural gas consumption. Additionally, power plants running on gas have been more expensive than those using coal, solar, or wind power, resulting in the idling of a significant portion of gas-fired power stations. Lowering LNG prices is crucial to making natural gas a more affordable option for the power sector and driving demand growth.
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Russia's coal and gas exports
Russia is one of the world's largest emitters of greenhouse gases (GHG), with fossil CO2 emissions accounting for a significant proportion of its total emissions. Since Russia's invasion of Ukraine in February 2022, its natural gas and coal exports to Europe have declined due to sanctions and policies aimed at reducing European reliance on Russian energy.
Russia has been redirecting its natural gas and coal exports towards Asia, particularly China, India, and Turkiye. From December 2022 to June 2025, China purchased 44% of Russia's coal exports, with India and Turkiye also among the top buyers. Russia's pipeline gas exports have also shifted, with the EU remaining the largest buyer (35%), followed by China (30%) and Turkiye (28%).
While Russia's coal-producing regions have been utilizing eastbound rail infrastructure to send coal to Asian markets, the limited infrastructure capacity compared to that available for Europe has constrained the volume of exports. This has resulted in congestion and delays on the railways. Additionally, Russia's revenues from coal exports have fluctuated, with a month-on-month drop of 8% in June 2025 but a subsequent increase of 7% in August 2025.
In August 2025, China remained the largest global buyer of Russian fossil fuels, with crude oil and coal constituting significant shares of its purchases. India's purchases were dominated by crude oil (78%) and coal (14%), while Turkiye's imports consisted mainly of pipeline gas (39%), oil products (34%), and crude oil (20%). Despite the shifts in export destinations, Russia's fossil fuel exports remain highly concentrated, with a narrow set of key customers.
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Japan's fossil fuel use
The United States, China, India, the EU27, Russia, and Brazil were the world's largest fossil fuel CO2 emitters in 2023. China has the largest CO2 emissions in the world, but also the second-largest population. Some argue that emissions should be analyzed per capita, which would put the United States in the lead.
Japan has also been one of the largest carbon dioxide emitters in the world, with fossil fuels representing important sources of energy production. In the 1950s, coal supplied half of Japan's energy needs, with oil and hydroelectricity making up the rest. By the 1970s, oil dominated Japan's energy mix, accounting for over 70% of its energy requirements. However, the 1973 oil crisis marked a turning point, exposing Japan's vulnerability to external supply shocks and triggering efforts to diversify its energy sources.
Japan now depends heavily on imported fossil fuels to meet its energy demands. In 2022, natural gas-fired generation accounted for 34% of Japan's energy generation, followed by coal at 31%. Japan's government has set targets to reduce the share of coal in electric generation from 31% in 2022 to 19% by 2030 and the share of petroleum generation from 4% to 2% in the same period. Japan has also announced plans to build experimental tidal power and wave power plants in coastal areas, and the country's renewable energy capacity has expanded by over 30% in the past five years.
In recent years, Japan has raised its climate goals, intending to cut emissions by 46% by 2030 compared to 2013 levels. The country also aims to be entirely emission-free by 2050. While there has been criticism that Japan may not be able to expand its renewable energy share fast enough to meet these goals, the country's greenhouse gas emissions have started to show a downward trend.
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Frequently asked questions
The United States has emitted more CO2 than any other country, with around 400 billion tonnes since 1751, followed by China, Russia, Brazil, and Indonesia.
Fossil fuel emissions have doubled over the past 30 years, quadrupled over the last 60 years, and risen nearly twelve-fold over the past century. In contrast, emissions from land use and forestry have remained relatively consistent over the past two centuries, amounting to around 3GtCO2 in 1850 and roughly 6GtCO2 today.
Greenhouse gases (GHG), primarily carbon dioxide, but also methane and chlorofluorocarbons, trap heat in the atmosphere, leading to global warming. Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas by warming contribution.
