Rajan Wilcox
Jet fuel, also known as aviation turbine fuel (ATF), is a type of aviation fuel used in aircraft powered by gas-turbine engines. It is a mixture of various hydrocarbons, with kerosene-type jet fuel (including Jet A and Jet A-1) having a carbon number distribution of about 8 to 16 carbon atoms per molecule. While jet fuel is primarily derived from fossil fuels, there is a growing focus on developing sustainable alternatives due to concerns about climate change and emissions. These alternatives, known as Sustainable Aviation Fuels (SAFs), are created from waste products and renewable sources, offering the potential to significantly reduce carbon dioxide emissions.
Is Jet Fuel a Fossil Fuel?
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Jet fuel defined as | A performance specification rather than a chemical compound |
| Jet fuel composition | Mixture of a variety of hydrocarbons |
| Jet fuel sources | Petroleum or blends of petroleum and synthetic fuels |
| Jet fuel alternatives | Sustainable aviation fuels (SAFs) derived from waste products, plant oils, waste oils, algal oils, soybean oil, jatropha oil, camelina oil, carinata oil, tung oil, etc. |
| Jet fuel alternatives emissions | SAFs result in a reduction in CO2 emissions across their lifecycle. |
| Jet fuel alternatives emissions compared to fossil fuels | SAFs reduce carbon dioxide emissions by roughly 70% to 80% compared with fossil fuels |
| Jet fuel alternatives impact | SAFs can approach net-zero carbon dioxide emissions, but burning the fuels still produces other types of pollution, including other greenhouse gases and particulate matter. |
| Jet fuel alternatives future | New policies in the European Union and the US are boosting these new fuels. |
| Jet fuel alternatives usage | Since the certification of SAFs in 2011, more than 225,000 commercial flights have been powered by SAFs and six billion litres of SAFs are in current forward purchase agreements by airlines. |
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What You'll Learn
Jet fuel is a fossil fuel
Jet fuel, or aviation turbine fuel (ATF), is a type of aviation fuel used in aircraft powered by gas-turbine engines. It is typically colorless or straw-colored and consists of a mixture of various hydrocarbons, including kerosene and gasoline. The specific composition of jet fuel can vary depending on the petroleum source, making it challenging to define as a fixed ratio of specific hydrocarbons. Thus, it is classified based on its performance specifications rather than its chemical composition.
Jet fuel is indeed a fossil fuel, primarily derived from petroleum sources. Petroleum-based fuels, including jet fuel, are significant contributors to air pollution and climate change due to their high energy density and extensive use in the transportation sector. However, the aviation industry is actively exploring alternatives to fossil jet fuels to reduce emissions and mitigate their environmental impact.
One notable alternative is sustainable aviation fuel (SAF), which can be created from waste products, biomass, and other renewable feedstocks. SAFs offer significant reductions in carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions compared to fossil fuels, with some sources claiming reductions of over 80%. These alternative fuels have the same basic chemical composition as fossil fuels but are derived from renewable sources, including biological sources such as waste oils, agricultural residues, and crops.
While SAFs show promising potential, it is important to consider their limitations. For example, crop-based biofuels may lead to higher carbon dioxide emissions due to the environmental impact of cultivating certain crops, such as palm oil, which can contribute to deforestation. Additionally, the production and use of SAFs may still result in other types of pollution, including greenhouse gas emissions and particulate matter, as well as the formation of contrails that trap heat in the atmosphere.
Furthermore, the transition to alternative fuels may be challenging due to the high energy density and established infrastructure of petroleum-based jet fuels. Nevertheless, the development and adoption of SAFs are being encouraged by policies in the European Union and the United States, with a growing number of commercial flights utilizing these alternative fuels.
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Jet fuel alternatives
Sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) is an alternative to jet fuel made from non-petroleum feedstocks that reduce emissions from air transport. SAF can be blended with conventional jet fuel at different levels, with limits between 10% and 50%, depending on the feedstock and production method. The first commercial airliner flight using 100% non-drop-in SAF took place recently, powered by GE90 engines. SAF has the potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by up to 94% compared to conventional jet fuel, depending on feedstock and technology pathway.
SAF can be produced from various feedstocks, including food and yard waste, woody biomass, fats, greases, oils, and municipal solid waste. The use of biofuel, however, presents challenges such as cost, with SAF being typically up to four times more expensive than kerosene. As a result, the supply of SAF is limited due to a lack of commitment by the industry.
Another alternative fuel is synthetic paraffinic kerosene (SPK), which is any non-petroleum-based fuel designed to replace kerosene jet fuel. SPK can be produced through biochemical or thermochemical sugar and starch crop conversion to create either isobutanol or ethanol, which is then further processed into jet fuel. However, SPK generated from these ATJ processes can only save up to 75% of CO2 emissions, as the energy required and emissions generated during the creation of the initial alcohol catalysts are considered.
Electrofuels are another alternative, primarily produced from electricity via the electrolysis of water with captured carbon or nitrogen. Fischer-Tropsch kerosene, methane, methanol, hydrogen, ammonia, and n-octane are examples of electrofuels. Hydrogen (H2) is particularly attractive as an alternative aviation fuel due to its high energy content, lack of CO2 emissions, and superior cooling properties.
Finally, ammonia (NH3) is also perceived as a potential fuel for gas turbines, as it has a high hydrogen content but no carbon atoms.
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Jet fuel composition
Jet fuel, or aviation turbine fuel (ATF), is a mixture of various hydrocarbons. It is defined by its performance specifications rather than as a chemical compound due to the wide variation in its composition based on its petroleum source. The range of molecular mass between hydrocarbons is defined by the requirements of the product, such as freezing or smoke points.
The most commonly used jet fuels for commercial aviation are Jet A and Jet A-1, which are produced according to international specifications. Jet A fuel has been used in the United States since the 1950s and is rarely available outside the country, except at a few Canadian airports. Jet A-1, on the other hand, is the standard specification fuel used in most parts of the world, excluding Russia and CIS members, where TS-1 is the predominant fuel type. Jet A and Jet A-1 have flash points higher than 38°C (100°F) and an auto-ignition temperature of 210°C (410°F). Jet A-1 has a lower freezing point than Jet A and requires the addition of an antistatic additive.
Kerosene-type jet fuels, including Jet A, Jet A-1, JP-5, and JP-8, have a carbon number distribution between about 8 and 16 carbon atoms per molecule. Wide-cut or naphtha-type jet fuels, including Jet B and JP-4, have a carbon number distribution ranging from about 5 to 15. Jet B is a naphtha-kerosene fuel known for its superior performance in cold weather, with a freezing point of −60 °C (−76 °F). However, its lighter composition makes it more challenging to handle, limiting its use to extremely cold regions like northern Canada and Alaska.
The predominant components of jet fuels are branched and linear paraffins and naphthenes (cycloalkanes), typically accounting for over 70% of the volume. Aromatic hydrocarbons like alkylbenzenes and naphthalenes generally do not exceed 25% of the total composition. Olefins constitute an insignificant fraction of the total composition in JP-5, JP-8, and Jet A fuels.
With the growth in air travel, the aviation industry is exploring alternatives to fossil jet fuels, such as sustainable aviation fuels (SAFs), to reduce emissions. SAFs are created from waste products, biomass, and other sustainable feedstocks, offering the potential to reduce emissions by up to 80%. These alternative fuels have the same basic chemical composition as fossil fuels but are derived from renewable sources. SAFs can be categorised into biofuels, made from biological sources or waste products, and synthetic electrofuels.
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Jet fuel emissions
Jet fuel, also known as aviation turbine fuel (ATF) or kerosene, is a fossil fuel with a mix of carbon-containing molecules. The combustion of jet fuel releases carbon dioxide (CO2) and other byproducts such as nitrogen oxides (NOx), water vapour, soot, and aerosols, which contribute to global warming and climate change. The amount of CO2 emitted is approximately 3.16 kg for every kilogram of jet fuel burned. Aircraft engine certification requirements address carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, nitrous oxide, and smoke emissions, and the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) has established CO2 emission standards for new aircraft.
The aviation industry is investing in alternatives to fossil jet fuels, such as sustainable aviation fuels (SAFs), to reduce emissions. SAFs are created from waste products, biological sources, and renewable feedstocks, offering the potential to reduce CO2 emissions by up to 80% compared to fossil fuels. These include plant oils, waste oils, algal oils, soybean oil, and municipal solid waste. SAFs can be blended with conventional jet fuel and used in existing aircraft without modifications. Since their certification in 2011, SAFs have powered over 225,000 commercial flights, and their use is promoted by airlines and supported by policies in the European Union and the US.
However, it is important to note that the impact of SAFs on emissions depends on various factors. While SAFs can reduce CO2 emissions, they still produce other types of pollution, including greenhouse gases, particulate matter, and contrails that trap heat in the atmosphere. Additionally, the production of SAFs from certain crop-based biofuels, such as palm oil, may result in higher carbon dioxide emissions than fossil fuels due to the environmental impact of growing these crops.
The calculation of jet fuel emissions per passenger considers factors such as flight distance, seat class, and the weight of cargo and passengers. Takeoff and landing require higher fuel burn rates, making shorter routes less efficient in terms of fuel consumption per kilometre. Aircraft models and engine types also influence fuel consumption, with turbine engines capable of operating with a wide range of fuels.
To mitigate the climate impact of aviation, researchers are exploring strategies beyond the reduction of CO2 emissions. These include the use of cleaner-burning fuels with fewer aromatics to reduce contrail formation and trajectory optimization, which has been demonstrated to mitigate around 40% of contrails with negligible changes in flight time. Policymakers and organizations are working towards impact assessments and legislative changes to optimize jet fuel composition and address the non-CO2 effects of aviation on global warming.
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Jet fuel production
Jet fuel is a hydrocarbon-rich substance that is derived from crude oil. The process of jet fuel production involves a complex sequence of steps, each designed to produce a fuel that powers aircraft and adheres to safety and environmental standards.
Firstly, oil must be discovered and extracted from deep within the Earth's crust. Modern oil exploration techniques involve drilling wells, both onshore and offshore, to extract this valuable resource. Once the crude oil has been extracted, it is transported to refineries where it undergoes an intricate refining process. This involves heating the oil in a furnace and using distillation columns to condense the resulting vapour. This separation process allows different hydrocarbons to be extracted at different temperatures, resulting in various petroleum products like gasoline, diesel, and jet fuel.
Jet fuel must meet stringent quality standards, including low sulfur content. To achieve this, the crude oil undergoes a process called desulfurization to remove sulfur compounds, improving its environmental impact and engine performance. Other processes such as hydrocracking and hydrotreating are also used to break down large hydrocarbon molecules into smaller, more desirable ones.
After these refining processes, the jet fuel is ready for production. Its specific composition and properties, such as density and freezing point, are carefully controlled to meet international standards. Jet fuel is a mixture of various hydrocarbons, including naphtha, kerosene, and other components, which are blended together in precise ratios. Quality control measures are in place to ensure the fuel meets safety and performance standards, including testing for characteristics such as flash point, volatility, and lubricity. Additives such as antioxidants, anti-icing agents, and corrosion inhibitors are also incorporated to improve fuel stability and safety.
In recent years, there has been a drive towards Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF), which blends conventional, petroleum-sourced jet fuel with renewable materials. This reduces CO2 emissions and contributes to the decarbonization of air travel. Biofuels, such as those made from vegetable oils, waste oils, and fats, are also being explored as alternatives to conventional jet fuel to reduce the environmental impact of the aviation sector.
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Frequently asked questions
Yes, jet fuel is a fossil fuel with a mix of carbon-containing molecules.
Jet fuel is a type of aviation fuel made from petroleum or blends of petroleum and synthetic fuels. It is a mixture of a variety of hydrocarbons.
Sustainable Aviation Fuels (SAFs) are made from a wide range of sources, including waste products, plant oils, waste oils, algal oils, soybean oil, jatropha oil, camelina oil, carinata oil, and tung oil.
SAFs have the potential to reduce emissions by 80% and contribute to the aviation industry's emissions-reduction strategy.
