Katerina Swanson
The aviation industry is facing a challenge: how to fly without relying on fossil fuels. With a significant negative impact on the environment, the best option for the industry is to reduce the number of flights. However, with a growing demand for air travel, the industry is exploring alternative fuel sources such as hydrogen, biofuels, electrofuels, and batteries. While these options are available, they come with their own challenges, such as the high cost and the need for new infrastructure. Despite these challenges, the industry is committed to making a change, with the EU adopting the RefuelEU aviation initiative, which calls for a minimum share of sustainable aviation fuels.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Current solutions | Biofuels, electrofuels, hydrogen, nuclear power, solar power, wind power |
| Prospective solutions | Electric airplanes, ammonia |
| Current challenges | High costs, lack of infrastructure, competition for resources, insufficient production of sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) |
| Prospective challenges | Increased cost and decreased convenience of non-fossil fuels |
| Mitigation strategies | Carbon offsets, removal of tax breaks on aviation fuel, limiting the number of flights, frequent flyer levies |
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Hydrogen-powered planes
Hydrogen-powered aircraft use hydrogen fuel as an energy source. Hydrogen can be burned in a jet engine or another type of internal combustion engine, or it can be used to power a fuel cell to generate electricity to power an electric propulsor. Hydrogen-powered aircraft have the potential to significantly reduce the environmental impact of aviation.
In 1989, Russia's Tupolev manufactured the first hydrogen aircraft, which ran on gaseous hydrogen. Since then, several other hydrogen-powered aircraft have been developed, including the Antares DLR-H2 by Lange Aviation and the German aerospace centre, and the Phantom Eye UAV by Boeing.
Airbus has also been working on hydrogen-powered aircraft through its ZEROe project, which was launched in 2020. The project aims to explore the feasibility of hydrogen propulsion technologies, including hydrogen combustion and hydrogen fuel cells. In 2025, Airbus announced that it would use hydrogen fuel cell technology as the propulsion method for its future aircraft. The company plans to launch a commercial hydrogen-powered aircraft by 2040-2045.
While hydrogen fuel cells are not a new technology, there are currently none commercially available that can power an aircraft while remaining within an acceptable weight range for flight. To address this challenge, Airbus founded a joint venture with ElringKlinger in 2020 called Aerostack. The collaboration aims to accelerate the development of fuel cells that meet aerospace weight and safety regulations.
In recent years, aviation startups ZeroAvia and Universal Hydrogen have also joined the race to develop hydrogen-powered aircraft. ZeroAvia successfully tested its 19-seat prototype plane, the Dornier 228, in 2023. The company retrofitted one side of the plane's twin-engine turboprop with fuel cells and batteries, while the other side retained its oil-burning jet engine. Universal Hydrogen, on the other hand, faced setbacks in 2024 due to a lack of funding.
Hydrogen-powered aircraft offer the potential for carbon-neutral flight, as the byproduct of hydrogen combustion is water. However, it is important to note that hydrogen must be produced using renewable energy to achieve carbon neutrality. Additionally, hydrogen-powered aircraft face infrastructure challenges, as new storage facilities, refuelling stations, and aircraft designs are required to accommodate this alternative fuel source.
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Ammonia-powered planes
To fly without fossil fuels, people have considered hydrogen, biofuels, electrofuels, and batteries as alternatives. One less commonly known alternative is ammonia-powered planes.
Ammonia (NH3) is a cheap, clean, and renewable fuel source that can be generated using only air and water. It has a zero-carbon footprint and is superior to gasoline. NH3 is energy-dense, making it suitable for powering large trucks and planes that cannot run on batteries.
The technology to generate NH3 has existed since 2009, and it has been used to power planes, freight trains, and automobiles. The cost of retrofitting vehicles to run on NH3 is estimated to be between $1,000 and $1,500. However, NH3 cars require their own filling stations, which may be a barrier to widespread adoption.
Despite the benefits of ammonia-powered planes, there has been limited uptake of the technology. This may be due to the lack of investment and government support, as well as the need for specialized infrastructure for storage and refueling.
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Biofuels
However, there are some challenges and limitations to using biofuels. One issue is scale; there may not be enough biomass that can be produced sustainably to replace fossil fuels. Additionally, the production of energy crops can have harmful ecological consequences, such as deforestation and wetlands loss. Biofuels are also more expensive than traditional fossil jet fuel or kerosene, and there is competition for biofuel capacity from other industries.
Despite these challenges, biofuels are still an important part of the transition to fossil-free flight, and organizations like Vattenfall and its First Movers Coalition partners are committed to supporting biofuels that significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
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Electrofuels
The production of electrofuels requires a significant amount of electricity, which is why they currently cost at least three times the price of conventional kerosene. However, as the technology improves and production scales up, the prices are expected to decrease over time.
While electrofuels still emit CO2 when burned in a jet engine, the carbon used to make the fuel comes from the atmosphere, theoretically making the fuel carbon-neutral. The EU has also adopted the RefuelEU aviation initiative, which calls for an increasing minimum share of sustainable aviation fuels (SAF), including certified biofuels and synthetic fuels, from 2025 to 2050. This regulatory boost is expected to drive further investment and innovation in the electrofuel space.
In conclusion, electrofuels have the potential to play a significant role in decarbonizing the aviation industry, but it is important to evaluate their impact on the wider energy system and compare their environmental performance with other available options.
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Electric planes
Electric aircraft are powered by electricity and are seen as a way to reduce the environmental impact of aviation, providing zero emissions and quieter flights. Electricity is often supplied by batteries, with most aircraft featuring electric motors driving propellers or turbines.
The first crewed free flight by an electrically powered plane, the MB-E1, was made in 1973, and most crewed electric aircraft today are still experimental prototypes. However, there have been some notable developments in recent years. In 2017, US-based Wright Electric built a two-seat plane with 272 kg of batteries, and they believe they can scale up with new battery chemistries. In 2018, Israel Aerospace Industries announced plans to develop a short-haul electric airliner. The world's first serially produced self-launching, manned electric aircraft, the Lange E1 Antares, completed its maiden flight in 1999, and over 100 aircraft of this type have been delivered. In 2025, the first passenger flight of an electric plane in North America landed at JFK airport, concluding a 45-minute flight. The plane, the Alia CX300, features four modular propellers allowing for vertical or horizontal take-off and seats five people.
There are challenges to the widespread adoption of electric aircraft, primarily the weight of batteries and the energy they can provide. However, as battery technology improves, longer flights will become possible. In addition, the cost of alternative fuels is often higher than that of fossil-based kerosene, but as these fuels become more common, prices will decrease.
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Frequently asked questions
There are several alternatives to fossil fuels that can be used to power aircraft. These include hydrogen, biofuels, electrofuels, and batteries.
Hydrogen is a clean-burning fuel that produces water vapour and nitrogen as by-products. It has been deemed the "best" fuel choice by NASA, the European Space Agency, and the Japanese Space Agency.
Hydrogen requires new infrastructure for airplanes, storage facilities, and refueling stations. Additionally, hydrogen-fueled aircraft would need to fly at higher altitudes, which could be a problem due to water vapour in the atmosphere.
Biofuels are made from waste or crops and can be used to power aircraft. They have been certified for use in some jet engines and have successfully powered flights. However, they may compete with food production, contribute to deforestation, and require large amounts of land.
Electrofuels are made using electricity and have been gaining regulatory support, with the EU adopting the RefuelEU aviation initiative. They are expected to be tested in aircraft around 2030. However, they require a significant amount of renewable energy to produce.
In addition to alternative fuels, reducing the number of flights and emissions is crucial. This includes removing tax breaks on aviation fuel, implementing frequent flyer levies, and improving alternatives to air travel, such as high-speed rail.
