Mercedes Mullins
Hydrogen is a clean fuel that can be used in cars, houses, and for electricity generation. It is considered an alternative fuel under the Energy Policy Act of 1992. Hydrogen fuel cells produce electricity by combining hydrogen and oxygen atoms. The interest in hydrogen as an alternative transportation fuel stems from its ability to power fuel cells in zero-emission vehicles, its potential for domestic production, and the fuel cell electric vehicle's fast filling time. Hydrogen can be produced from a variety of domestic resources, such as natural gas, nuclear power, biomass, and renewable power like solar and wind. However, the high cost of fuel cells and the limited availability of hydrogen fueling stations have restricted the number of hydrogen-fueled vehicles in use today.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Hydrogen's abundance in the universe | 75% of all matter |
| Hydrogen production in the US (annually) | 10 million metric tons |
| Hydrogen production globally (2022) | 95 million metric tons |
| Hydrogen production in the US (2023) | 10 million metric tons |
| Hydrogen's use in the US | Petroleum refining, fertilizer production, transportation, electricity generation |
| Hydrogen fueling stations in the US | 50-60 |
| Hydrogen-powered vehicles in the US | 15,000+ |
| Hydrogen fuel cell forklifts in the US | 50,000+ |
| Hydrogen fuel cell buses in the US | 80+ |
| Electrolyzers in the US (planned or installed) | 4.5 GW |
| Electrolyzers in the US (current installed capacity) | 116 MW |
| Electrolyzers in the US (under construction) | 657 MW |
| Electrolyzers in the US (planned with commitments) | 3.8 GW |
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What You'll Learn
Hydrogen fuel cells
The operation of hydrogen fuel cells differs from traditional batteries. While batteries derive chemical energy from substances inherently present in the battery, fuel cells require a continuous supply of fuel and oxygen to sustain the chemical reaction that generates electricity. This electricity can be produced continuously as long as fuel and oxygen are supplied, making fuel cells a reliable source of power. Additionally, fuel cells operate silently due to their minimal moving parts and can achieve higher efficiencies than combustion engines, making them an attractive alternative energy solution.
The production of hydrogen fuel can be achieved through various methods, including natural gas reforming, electrolysis, and biological processes using microbes such as bacteria and microalgae. Electrolysis involves separating water into oxygen and hydrogen, while biological processes harness the natural photosynthetic activity of microbes to produce hydrogen. These production methods contribute to the versatility of hydrogen fuel cells and their potential for widespread adoption.
Despite the numerous advantages of hydrogen fuel cells, there are challenges to their implementation. One significant obstacle is the limited availability of hydrogen fuelling stations, hindering the widespread use of hydrogen-fueled vehicles. Additionally, the high cost of fuel cells and the need for further research, development, and demonstration to improve cost-effectiveness and performance are key barriers to overcome. However, with strong momentum behind hydrogen strategies and increasing global demand, there is a growing focus on accelerating production scale-up and reducing the costs associated with low-emission hydrogen technologies.
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Hydrogen production methods
Hydrogen can be produced using a variety of processes, and nearly all of the world's current supply of hydrogen is created from fossil fuels. The two most common methods for producing hydrogen are steam-methane reforming and electrolysis. Steam-methane reforming, also known as natural gas reforming, is a thermal process that uses heat and chemical reactions to release hydrogen from methane, the main component of natural gas. This process produces hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and a small amount of carbon dioxide. Electrolysis, on the other hand, splits water into hydrogen and oxygen using electricity. It is a clean method with no by-products other than hydrogen and oxygen.
Other methods of hydrogen production include biomass gasification, methane pyrolysis, and extraction of underground hydrogen. Hydrogen can also be produced through biological processes using microbes such as bacteria and microalgae, which can produce hydrogen through biological reactions. These biological processes include microbial biomass conversion, where microbes break down organic matter to produce hydrogen, and photobiological processes, where microbes use sunlight as an energy source.
There is ongoing research and development into other hydrogen production methods, such as solar-driven processes, which use light as the agent for hydrogen production. These solar-driven processes include photobiological, photoelectrochemical, and solar thermochemical methods. Additionally, carbon/hydrocarbon-assisted water electrolysis (CAWE) is being explored as a potential cleaner and less energy-intensive method of hydrogen production.
The production of low-emissions hydrogen using renewable or nuclear energy, or fossil fuels with carbon capture, is gaining momentum globally, with 60 governments adopting hydrogen strategies. However, faster action is needed to increase demand and unlock investments to accelerate production and reduce technology costs.
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Hydrogen storage
Hydrogen can be stored physically as either a gas or a liquid. Storage of hydrogen as a gas typically requires high-pressure tanks (350-700 bar, 5,000-10,000 psi tank pressure). Compressed hydrogen in hydrogen tanks at 350 bar (5,000 psi) and 700 bar (10,000 psi) is used for hydrogen tank systems in vehicles, based on type IV carbon-composite technology. Honda, Nissan, and BMW are among the car manufacturers that have been developing this solution. Storage of hydrogen as a liquid requires cryogenic temperatures because the boiling point of hydrogen at one atmosphere pressure is −252.8 °C. Liquefied hydrogen can be stored in super-cooled (cryogenic) tanks for transportation applications in fuel cell vehicles or directly as fuel in truck, rail, marine, and rocket engines. NASA has the two largest liquid hydrogen storage tanks in the world.
Hydrogen can also be stored within solid materials (absorption or adsorption). Chemical storage could offer high storage performance due to the high storage densities of chemical compounds such as hydrocarbons, boron hydrides, ammonia, and alane. Electrochemical hydrogen storage is a promising chemical approach as the release of hydrogen can be controlled by the applied electricity. Nanomaterials offer an alternative that overcomes the two major barriers of bulk materials: the rate of sorption and activation.
Solid-state hydrogen storage systems, such as metal hydrides, chemical hydrides, or hydrogen-absorbing carbon materials, are expected to be simpler for the engineering design of vehicles and considerably safer than the storage of elemental hydrogen. However, none of the known storage methods (compression, liquefaction, or storage as metal hydrides) can meet the US Department of Energy's (DOE) 6.0 wt% target for hydrogen storage on board automobiles.
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Hydrogen-fuelled vehicles
As of 2021, there were only about 17,000 hydrogen-powered vehicles on US roads, all of which were in California. This is a stark contrast to the millions of electric vehicles currently in use. The limited availability of hydrogen fuelling stations is a significant challenge for hydrogen-powered vehicles. Despite plans for California to have 100 hydrogen stations, the current number is less than 60, and many of these stations are not always available for fuelling. The high cost of building a new fuelling network and the expensive price of hydrogen fuel for drivers have also hindered the widespread adoption of hydrogen vehicles.
However, hydrogen vehicles offer some advantages over electric vehicles. Hydrogen vehicles have a similar range to electric cars with large battery storage, and their range does not deteriorate in cold weather. Hydrogen is also an efficient way to store and transport renewable energy, and it can be produced from a variety of domestic resources such as natural gas, nuclear power, biomass, solar, and wind. Additionally, hydrogen vehicles have shorter refuelling times compared to electric vehicles, which can enhance productivity, especially in sectors like warehousing.
While the future of passenger cars may be more electric, hydrogen fuel still has potential in other sectors. Companies like Boeing, Lange Aviation, and the German Aerospace Center are exploring hydrogen as fuel for crewed and uncrewed aeroplanes. Hydrogen may also find applications in shipping and jet planes, as well as in seaports. Hydrogen fuel cell technology is also being tested for delivery vehicles and trucks, with Hyundai already commercially producing its Xcient fuel cell trucks.
Despite the challenges, there is still interest in hydrogen as a low- and zero-carbon fuel option. With increasing production volumes, hydrogen technology is expected to become more cost-competitive with other energy sources. Additionally, hydrogen fuel cells can benefit from the recycling of platinum through catalytic converters, reducing the amount of raw material needed. While hydrogen vehicles may not be as prevalent as electric vehicles, they still have a role to play in the transition to a more sustainable transportation system.
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Hydrogen demand and supply
Hydrogen is a clean fuel that can be used to store, move, and deliver energy produced from other sources. It can be used in cars, houses, and for electricity generation. Hydrogen fuel cells produce electricity by combining hydrogen and oxygen atoms. Hydrogen can be produced from a variety of sources, including natural gas, nuclear power, biomass, and renewable power like solar and wind.
The demand for hydrogen reached 97 million tonnes (Mt) in 2023, an increase of 2.5% compared to 2022, and is expected to reach almost 100 Mt in 2024. This demand is driven by the need for decarbonization in sectors such as heavy industry and long-distance transport, where it has been challenging to reduce emissions. Hydrogen demand is also concentrated in refining and industry applications, where it has been used for decades. However, its adoption in new applications, such as heavy industry, long-distance transport, and energy storage, accounts for less than 1% of global demand.
To meet this demand, several countries have implemented strategies to promote the production and use of hydrogen. For instance, Germany has launched a CCfD scheme with a total of EUR 4 billion to support fuel switching in the industry. Japan has included 15-year CfD subsidies in the Hydrogen Society Promotion Act to boost domestic hydrogen production and imports. The United Kingdom has selected eleven projects for the Hydrogen Allocation Round, providing over GBP 2 billion in OPEX support. Additionally, the State of California's Advanced Clean Cars Program aims to establish publicly accessible hydrogen vehicle fueling stations to promote a consumer market for zero-emission fuel cell vehicles.
While low-emissions hydrogen production technologies are commercially available, they have not yet reached full maturity. Electrolytic hydrogen production technologies are the most mature, but other methods need to be proven on a large scale. Efforts are being made to lower production costs, improve efficiency, and reduce equipment costs. Additionally, research and development are ongoing to assess the compatibility of using hydrogen and hydrogen-natural gas blends in heating appliances.
In conclusion, hydrogen demand is growing, driven by the need for decarbonization and clean energy transition. Governments and industries are implementing strategies and investments to meet this demand, but more needs to be done to accelerate the production scale-up and lower the costs of low-emissions hydrogen technologies.
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Frequently asked questions
Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe, but it is present in limited amounts in its elemental form on Earth. In 2022, 95 Mt of hydrogen was produced and used globally, with 10 Mt produced in the US.
Hydrogen can be produced from a variety of domestic resources, including natural gas, nuclear power, biomass, and renewable power like solar and wind. The most common methods of production are natural gas reforming (a thermal process) and electrolysis.
The high cost of fuel cells and the limited availability of hydrogen fueling stations have slowed the adoption of hydrogen-fueled vehicles. Additionally, some methods of hydrogen production generate emissions that impact air quality and contribute to greenhouse gas emissions.
Hydrogen is a clean fuel that, when consumed in a fuel cell, produces only water and warm air as exhaust. It has the potential to decarbonize the transportation sector, particularly for heavy-duty vehicles where storing large amounts of energy and rapid refueling are challenging for electric vehicles. Hydrogen can also be used for electricity generation and heating applications.
