Ameer Randolph
Fossil fuels, including coal, oil, and natural gas, have long been the dominant energy sources globally. However, they are the largest contributors to global climate change and air pollution, causing millions of premature deaths annually. While clean energy sources like solar, wind, and hydropower have seen record growth, they still only account for a small portion of the global energy mix. To combat climate change, a rapid transition to low-carbon energy sources is necessary, presenting both challenges and opportunities for the future energy landscape.
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What You'll Learn
Fossil fuels: coal, oil, and gas
Fossil fuels—coal, oil, and gas—have long been the dominant source of global energy. In 2016, the world consumed 8,561,852,178 tons of coal, amounting to 1,132,737 cubic feet per capita. Coal has been a critical energy source for centuries, but it is also the most polluting. It produces the most CO2 per unit of energy and creates significant local air pollution. As a result, coal has been identified as a major driver of global climate change, and its displacement with low-carbon energy sources is a priority for the coming decades.
Oil is another significant fossil fuel source, with global consumption reaching 35,442,913,090 barrels in 2016. This equates to approximately 5 barrels, or 197 gallons, per person each year. Oil, along with coal and gas, contributes to global carbon emissions and climate change. As low-carbon alternatives become more accessible, the transition away from these fossil fuels is imperative to mitigate their negative environmental impact.
Natural gas is another fossil fuel with substantial global consumption. In 2017, the world consumed 132,290,211 million cubic feet of natural gas, or about 47 cubic feet per person annually. While natural gas may be less polluting than coal in terms of CO2 emissions, it still contributes to global carbon dioxide production and climate change when burned.
Together, coal, oil, and gas account for around four-fifths of global primary energy consumption. The impact of each fuel type varies, with coal producing more CO2 and local air pollution per unit of energy compared to the others. Nevertheless, the overall environmental impact of fossil fuels is significant, underscoring the need for a transition to low-carbon energy sources.
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Petroleum
In 2018, motor gasoline accounted for 46% of total petroleum consumption in the US, the largest consumer of petroleum, at 23% of worldwide consumption. In 2023, petroleum provided about 89% of the transportation sector's primary energy consumption in the US but less than 1% of the electric power sector's primary energy consumption.
The US has seen a decline in petroleum consumption, with a notable drop in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. However, consumption increased in subsequent years as the economy returned to pre-pandemic activity. In 2023, petroleum accounted for about 38% of total US energy consumption.
Some countries subsidize petroleum products, making transport cheaper but discouraging fuel efficiency. These countries include Saudi Arabia, Iran, Egypt, Burma, Kuwait, and Venezuela. The future of petroleum through 2050 is uncertain as economies transition towards sustainable renewable energy sources.
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Natural gas
Fossil fuels, including coal, oil, and natural gas, have been the primary energy source for over 150 years, currently supplying around 80% of the world's energy. Natural gas consists mainly of methane, with small amounts of higher alkanes, and traces of carbon dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen sulfide, and helium. It is a fossil fuel formed when organic matter is subjected to intense heat and pressure underground over millions of years.
In 2023, the United States was the leading consumer of natural gas worldwide, with a consumption of 32.5 trillion cubic feet. The industrial sector in the U.S. consumed the second-largest proportion of natural gas, after electricity generation. In the industrial sector, natural gas is used for process heating, heat and power systems, and as a raw material to produce chemicals and fertilizers. The use of natural gas in the industrial sector is projected to increase.
Global gas consumption grew in 2024, with the largest increases in the USA, Russia, and China. Gas consumption also grew in Canada, Asia (especially India, Indonesia, South Korea, and Taiwan), the Middle East (especially Iran and Saudi Arabia), and Africa (especially Nigeria, Algeria, and Egypt).
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Renewable energy sources
Fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, and natural gas, are non-renewable energy sources that have dominated the energy mix in the US and other countries for decades. However, the transition to renewable energy sources is essential to address the climate crisis and reduce carbon emissions.
Solar energy, derived from sunlight, is one of the most widely accessible renewable resources due to its abundance and decreasing cost of technology. Solar panels capture sunlight and convert it into electricity through the photovoltaic effect. Despite the benefits of solar energy, factors such as installation costs, space requirements, and varying sunlight levels can impact its implementation.
Wind power, generated through wind turbines, is another significant renewable energy source. Onshore and offshore wind farms convert the kinetic energy of spinning blades into electricity, contributing to national power grids. Wind energy has evolved with taller turbines and larger rotor diameters to maximize electricity production.
Hydropower, the largest source of renewable energy in the electricity sector, utilizes reservoirs to provide a controlled flow of water that drives turbines. While hydropower offers reliable energy, it can be impacted by climate-induced droughts and ecosystem changes. Small-scale hydro and tidal energy are considered more environmentally friendly and predictable alternatives.
Bioenergy, derived from burning biomass (organic matter), is a renewable source as long as the harvested living organisms are replenished. It includes plant-based biofuels, timber, and food waste. While bioenergy emits carbon dioxide, it is considered renewable as the emitted carbon is absorbed during the organisms' lifespans. However, large-scale bioenergy plantations can lead to deforestation and land-use changes.
Geothermal energy, harnessed from the natural heat below the Earth's surface, is a self-replenishing renewable energy source with minimal surface ecosystem impact. However, geothermal plants can be costly to construct, and certain areas prone to earthquakes may not be suitable for their implementation.
Overall, a combination of these renewable energy sources is crucial to reducing our reliance on fossil fuels and achieving net-zero emissions targets.
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Nuclear energy
Nuclear fuels are substances, typically fissile materials, used by nuclear power stations to generate energy. Nuclear power plants generate electricity by using controlled nuclear fission chain reactions to heat water and produce steam to power turbines. Uranium is the most common nuclear fuel, with only 0.7% being fissile and capable of undergoing fission to produce energy. Uranium-235 is the isotope of uranium that can be used to produce energy by fission, but it constitutes less than 1% of the world's uranium. To increase the likelihood of natural uranium undergoing fission, the amount of uranium-235 in a given sample is increased through a process called uranium enrichment. Enriched uranium can then be used as nuclear fuel in power plants for three to five years before it needs to be disposed of following strict guidelines to protect people and the environment.
Nuclear power plants use significantly less fuel than coal or gas power plants to generate the same amount of electricity, making nuclear fuel a reliable source of energy for decades to come. For instance, 1 kg of uranium contains the same amount of energy as 2.7 million kg of coal. Uranium is mined from the ground and occurs throughout the world, though it is not considered a renewable resource as it is a finite material. In 2023, the U.S. purchased 23.4 kt of uranium, a 27% increase from 2022. Uranium is extracted by in-situ leaching (58%), open-pit mining (19%), and underground mining (16%).
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Frequently asked questions
Primary energy sources include fossil fuels (petroleum, natural gas, and coal), nuclear energy, and renewable sources of energy.
Fossil fuels are the sum of coal, oil, and natural gas. They were key to industrialization and rising prosperity but are now known to be the largest driver of global climate change.
Natural gas and petroleum are currently the most common types of fuel used.
In 2023, total U.S. primary energy consumption was equal to about 94 quadrillion British thermal units (Btu).
Low-carbon sources of energy include nuclear and renewable sources such as hydropower, biomass, wind, geothermal, and solar energy.
