Ameer Randolph
Oil and fuel played a critical role in World War II, with the availability and quality of fuel dictating wartime strategies and the outcome of the war. The Allied forces conducted an aerial bombing campaign against facilities supplying Nazi Germany with fuel, which was identified as a key vulnerability before the war. The US and Britain were heavily reliant on gasoline, while the Soviet forces used distillate fuel oil as their tanks ran on diesel. Germany, an oil-poor nation, imported much of its fuel from Romania and the Soviet Union and produced the rest as synthetic fuel. The German army also relied heavily on horses for transport, with an average of 1.1 million horses used throughout the war.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Fuel usage by the US military | 29% of US production or 520,000 barrels per day in 1944 |
| Fuel usage by the German army | 11,500 cubic meters or 3,348,800 gallons daily in early July |
| Luftwaffe fuel consumption | 304 million gallons in the second half of 1941 |
| US rationing of gasoline | 1.5-4 gallons per week |
| US speed limit during WWII | 35 mph |
| German fuel imports | 30-40% from Romania's Ploiesti fields, 10-20% from the Soviet Union |
| German synfuel production | 50-60% of total fuel usage |
| German use of horses during WWII | 1.1 million |
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What You'll Learn
US fuel usage and production
Oil was a crucial factor in World War II, with each country's war strategy dictated by its availability, quality, and attempts to secure more. The United States had a distinct advantage in this regard, as it produced 60% of the world's crude oil at the time. In contrast, its primary foe, Nazi Germany, had limited domestic oil production and relied heavily on imports and synthetic fuel production.
To maintain the flow of oil, the US government funded the construction of the War Emergency Pipeline, also known as "the Big Inch," which was the longest and largest pipeline ever built at the time. It stretched over 2,000 kilometers (1,200 miles) from Baytown, Texas, on the Gulf of Mexico, to Linden, New Jersey. The pipeline consisted of two parallel lines: a 24-inch (60-centimeter) diameter pipe carrying crude oil and a 20-inch (50-centimeter) line carrying refined petroleum products.
US military fuel usage peaked at about 29% of US production, or just over 520,000 barrels per day (bpd) in 1944, according to the Petroleum Board. However, it's important to note that the US also supplied oil to its allies, particularly Britain, which obtained significant benefits from the "Big Inch" pipeline. The US ramped up its production of 100-octane aviation gasoline, which was crucial for the British Spitfires, from 40,000 bpd in 1940 to 514,000 bpd in 1945.
The US military's massive fuel consumption had a significant impact on its war efforts. For example, during the Marianas campaign in 1944, the US lost only 29 planes compared to Japan's 273, which was attributed to a lack of fuel on the Japanese side. However, individual US armies in the field did experience shortages or constraints on fuel supply due to the logistical challenges of shipping fuel through recently captured territories.
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German fuel requirements
It is challenging to determine the exact fuel requirements of Germany during World War II due to various factors, including fuel constraints and the dynamic nature of fuel usage based on availability. However, we can examine the available information to understand the German fuel situation during the war.
Germany had always been an oil-poor nation, relying mainly on coal for its energy needs. Before and during World War II, Germany imported significant amounts of oil from other countries. Initially, they sourced around 10-20% of their oil from the Soviet Union. However, as the war progressed, Romania's Ploiesti fields became their primary source, providing 30-40% of their total oil use. Germany also produced synthetic gasoline (synfuel) from coal hydrogenation, accounting for about 50-60% of their total oil supply.
The German military's fuel requirements varied throughout the war. During the initial blitzkrieg warfare, they were successful in capturing more fuel than they consumed. However, as the war extended eastward, sustaining supply lines became more challenging. The German Panzers, running on gasoline, faced fuel shortages when facing Soviet tanks, which used diesel fuel. The Eastern offensives, particularly after the loss of Romanian and Hungarian oilfields in mid-1944, strained the German fuel supply. Additionally, the breakdown of rail transport and reduced synthetic oil production due to Allied bombings further impacted their fuel availability.
Field Marshal Rommel's statements and actions highlight the fuel constraints faced by the German military. Rommel's tactics were influenced by fuel availability, and he expressed concerns about running out of fuel in letters to his wife. He even resorted to using "dummy tanks" on more fuel-efficient vehicles to create an illusion of greater tank numbers.
While exact figures for the German military's ideal fuel consumption are elusive, some sources provide insights. According to Glantz's "Barbarossa Derailed," the daily fuel consumption of the army in the East was estimated at 9,000 cubic meters or 2,621,049 gallons, but the actual figure sometimes exceeded this estimate, reaching 11,500 cubic meters or 3,348,800 gallons per day. This equates to approximately 8,400 metric tons of fuel per day, considering their exclusive use of gasoline. Additionally, the Luftwaffe's fuel consumption in the second half of 1941 is estimated at around 304 million gallons or 844,000 tons of gasoline.
In summary, Germany's fuel requirements during World War II were significant, and their fuel supply was a critical factor in their military campaigns. The German military adapted its tactics based on fuel availability, and fuel shortages impacted their ability to conduct operations, particularly in the later stages of the war.
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Allied oil campaign
The Allied oil campaign, also known as the Oil Plan, was a systematic aerial bombing campaign conducted by the RAF and the USAAF during World War II. The campaign targeted facilities supplying Nazi Germany with petroleum, oil, and lubrication (POL) products. These targets included refineries, synthetic-fuel factories, storage depots, and other POL infrastructure in Germany and Axis-controlled Europe.
The British had identified Germany's reliance on oil and oil products for its war machine before the war and prioritized oil targets in their "Western Air Plan 5(c)". The strategic bombing campaign began with RAF attacks on Germany in 1940, focusing on night bombing of oil targets. However, due to the challenges of locating these targets at night, attacks on other war industries were also carried out on dark nights. On June 20, 1940, oil targets were made the third priority below the German aircraft industry and lines of communication with front-line armies.
After the United States entered the war in December 1941, it conducted daytime "precision bombing" attacks on refineries, such as Operation Tidal Wave against refineries in Romania in 1943. The Allies also utilized reconnaissance photo information to time bombing raids with the resumption of production at targeted facilities. Despite these efforts, the efficiency of the bombing campaign was lacking, with a significant percentage of bombs falling outside the factory perimeters.
The last major strategic raid of the European theater of the war targeted a refinery in Norway in April 1945. The Allied oil campaign successfully devastated German POL production, contributing to the overall Allied victory. Post-war, Joint Chiefs of Staff Directive 1067 prohibited German oil production through July 1947, and the United States Army made provisions to rehabilitate and utilize captured petroleum installations.
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British bombing strategy
The British had identified Germany's reliance on oil and oil products for its war machine before World War II. The strategic bombing campaign against Germany began in 1940 with RAF attacks on military targets, seaplane air bases, and the aircraft industry.
In 1940, the Germans switched to raids on RAF fighter bases, and the Luftwaffe began using bombers at night to target the aircraft industry, ports, harbours, and other strategic targets. In August 1940, several German bombers accidentally bombed central London, which led to a retaliatory raid on Berlin by the RAF, ordered by Winston Churchill. Hitler responded by commencing the Blitz, targeting British civilians in September 1940.
The British bombing campaign became less restricted and increasingly targeted industrial sites and civilian areas from February 1942 onwards. The British adopted a policy known as "area bombing," where entire towns were targeted to destroy the German war economy and undermine civilian morale. The accuracy of Bomber Command's attacks increased with the introduction of electronic navigation and targeting aids from 1942, allowing them to devastate relatively small targets with precision.
The British bombing offensive in the winter of 1943/44 failed to make an impact, but the US Army Air Force joined the strategic bombing campaign in the summer of 1942, committed to 'precision bombing' in daylight. The bombing of German cities, such as Hamburg (1943) and Dresden (1945), raised questions about the morality of the strategy, with critics arguing that the British ""descended to the enemy's level". Winston Churchill acknowledged the need to review the bombing campaign, especially as it concerned civilian populations.
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Fuel and military might
The Second World War was a war of motion, and oil was a key factor in military might. The UK Royal Navy and US Navy shifted from coal to oil as a source of power before World War I, and this was soon emulated by other major navies. By 1939, all naval vessels in the world and 85% of merchant ships were burning oil for propulsion.
Fighter planes, bombers, tanks, battleships, submarines, and supply trucks are all highly energy-intensive. For example, a tank achieves a fuel economy of around 0.5 miles per gallon. Thus, military strategies were dictated by fuel availability and quality, and attempts were made to secure more fuel, including by rationing non-critical uses.
Germany's fuel for its war machine was imported from Romania's Ploiesti fields (30-40% of total use) and, earlier in the war, from the Soviet Union (10-20%). The German army also captured more fuel than it used in its early blitzkrieg warfare. The remaining oil was produced in Germany as synfuel (50-60% of total). Germany had always been an oil-poor, coal-rich nation, relying on the latter for 90% of its energy in the 1930s. However, it could manufacture synthetic gasoline by hydrogenating coal at high temperatures and pressures. By 1943, 124kbpd of synthetic fuel was being produced, accounting for over half of Germany's total wartime oil use and 90% of the aviation gasoline for the Luftwaffe.
The Allies conducted an aerial bombing campaign against facilities supplying Nazi Germany with petroleum, oil, and lubrication products. This formed part of the immense Allied strategic bombing effort during the war. The targets included refineries, synthetic-fuel factories, storage depots, and other POL infrastructure. The last major strategic raid of the European theatre of the war targeted a refinery in Norway in April 1945. Real shortages for Germany only emerged in mid-1944 when Soviet offensives caused the loss of Romanian and Hungarian oil fields, coupled with the complete breakdown of rail transport and reduced synthetic oil production due to Allied bombings.
US military fuel usage peaked at about 29% of US production or just over 520,000 barrels per day in 1944. However, since the US was producing most of the world's oil at the time, much of its oil was also being used by other Allied militaries.
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Frequently asked questions
Germany's fuel usage during World War II is difficult to calculate due to endogeneity problems. Their fuel usage was dependent on their access to fuel, and their need for it. Germany imported most of its fuel from Romania and the Soviet Union, and also produced synthetic fuel. In 1941, the Luftwaffe consumed about 304 million gallons of fuel, or 844,000 tons of gasoline.
The Allied oil campaign of World War II was an aerial bombing campaign conducted by the RAF and the USAAF against facilities supplying Nazi Germany with fuel. The campaign started in 1940 and ended with a raid on a refinery in Norway in April 1945. The Allies also employed scientists to research German synthetic fuel production.
Fuel was a critical component of the war effort, with Erwin Rommel writing, "neither guns nor ammunition are of much use in modern warfare unless there is sufficient petrol to haul them around… a shortage of petrol is enough to make one weep". The German army had the greatest use of equestrian transport in history, with an average of 1.1 million horses used throughout the war.
The US and Britain were heavily reliant on gasoline and residual fuel oil, while the Soviets used distillate fuel oil as their tanks ran on diesel. The US military's fuel usage peaked at about 29% of US production, or 520,000 barrels per day in 1944.
