Ameer Randolph
SpaceX's Starship spacecraft and Super Heavy rocket are collectively referred to as Starship, and they represent a fully reusable transportation system designed to carry crew and cargo to Earth orbit, the Moon, Mars, and beyond. The Block 2 version of the Starship spacecraft is 52.1 metres tall and 9 metres wide, with four sections: the engine bay, oxygen tank, fuel tank, and payload bay. The vehicle's tanks can hold 1,500 tonnes of propellant, consisting of liquid oxygen and methane. SpaceX has proposed using Starship for point-to-point flights on Earth, travelling anywhere in under an hour. The spacecraft is also designed to enable satellite delivery, the development of a Moon base, and support future space exploration initiatives.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Fuel Type | Liquid methane and liquid oxygen |
| Fuel Tank Capacity | 1,500 t (3,300,000 lb) |
| Fuel Tank Composition | 1,170 t (2,580,000 lb) of liquid oxygen and 330 t (730,000 lb) of liquid methane |
| Dry Mass | 100 t (220,000 lb) |
| Fuel Delivery | Dedicated tanker or in-orbit refueling |
| Fuel Consumption Metric | Delta-V (change of height) |
| Fuel Consumption for Lunar Orbit | 450 t of propellant for a 120 t Starship |
| Fuel Consumption for LEO to NRHO and Back | Fully fueled Starship can make the trip without refueling with a modest payload |
| Fuel Consumption for NRHO to Lunar Surface and Back | 300 t of propellant for deorbit, descent, and landing |
| Fuel Consumption for LEO to Gateway | ~3.75 km/s |
| Fuel Consumption for Gateway to Lunar Surface | ~3.75 km/s |
| Fuel Consumption for Lunar Surface to Gateway | ~3.75 km/s |
| Fuel Consumption for Lunar Orbit to Lunar Surface | 1.7-1.8 km/s |
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What You'll Learn
Starship HLS fuel requirements
The Starship HLS (Human Landing System) is a variant of the Starship spacecraft designed by SpaceX to carry NASA's mission of landing astronauts on the Moon. The HLS is launched into low Earth orbit (LEO) and refuelled by multiple Starship tanker spacecraft.
The fuel requirements of the Starship HLS depend on the payload it is carrying. A fully fuelled Starship HLS carrying a modest payload (a crew of 4-6 with a small amount of cargo) can go from LEO to NRHO (near-rectilinear halo orbit) and back to LEO without needing to refuel. However, this does not include enough propellant for landing and taking off from the Moon.
To land on the Moon, the Starship HLS will fire its engines to slow down and perform a "belly-flop" manoeuvre by diving through the atmosphere at a 60-degree angle to the ground. It will then use fuel from its header tanks to perform a "landing flip" manoeuvre to return to a vertical orientation.
NASA has estimated that 16 launches in short succession are needed to refuel the Starship HLS for one lunar landing partially due to cryogenic propellant boil-off. SpaceX vice president of customer operations has given a lower estimate of "10-ish" tanker launches, while Elon Musk stated that "between four and eight" tanker launches would be required.
The Starship HLS will be used in conjunction with the Starship tanker and propellant depot variants, which will transport and store propellant in Earth orbit. The HLS and depot cannot re-enter the Earth's atmosphere as they lack a thermal protection system, flaps, and other necessary hardware.
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Starship's fuel tank capacity
The SpaceX Starship is a fully reusable spacecraft and second stage of the Starship system. It is composed of four general sections: the engine bay, the oxygen tank, the fuel tank, and the payload bay. The Block 2 version of the Starship is 52.1 meters (171 feet) tall and 9 meters (30 feet) wide.
The fuel tank of the Starship holds 1,500 metric tons (3,300,000 pounds) of propellant, consisting of 1,170 metric tons (2,580,000 pounds) of liquid oxygen and 330 metric tons (730,000 pounds) of liquid methane. The dry weight of the Starship is 120,000 kilograms, and it can carry 120,000 kilograms of fuel and 130 metric tons of cargo. This gives the Starship a total payload capacity of 100-125 metric tons.
The Starship's fuel capacity allows it to carry out various missions, including point-to-point transport on Earth, enabling travel to anywhere in the world in under an hour. The spacecraft is also designed to carry crew and cargo to Earth orbit, the Moon, Mars, and beyond. One proposed mission for the Starship is to help enable the development of a Moon base by transporting large amounts of cargo to the lunar surface.
To land on bodies without an atmosphere, such as the Moon, the Starship will fire its engines to slow down. For bodies with an atmosphere, such as Earth and Mars, the Starship slows down by entering the atmosphere using a heat shield and performing a "belly-flop" maneuver. The Starship then performs a "landing flip" maneuver to return to a vertical orientation shortly before landing.
The Starship can also be refueled in orbit by docking with separately launched Starship propellant tanker spacecraft. This concept, which has not been demonstrated as of 2025, could potentially increase the spacecraft's mass capacity and allow it to reach higher-energy targets.
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Fuel for landing on the Moon
The Apollo 11 spaceflight, conducted from July 16 to 24, 1969, marked the first time humans landed on the Moon. Commander Neil Armstrong and Lunar Module Pilot Buzz Aldrin landed the Lunar Module Eagle on July 20, 1969, at 20:17 UTC. Armstrong became the first person to step onto the Moon's surface, with Aldrin joining him 19 minutes later.
The Saturn V rocket used for the Apollo 11 mission carried a total of just under 950,000 gallons of fuel. The first stage carried 203,400 gallons of kerosene fuel and 318,000 gallons of liquid oxygen, the second stage carried 260,000 gallons of liquid hydrogen and 80,000 gallons of liquid oxygen, and the third stage carried 66,700 gallons of liquid hydrogen and 19,359 gallons of liquid oxygen.
The amount of fuel required for a Moon landing has been a critical consideration in the development of spacecraft. For example, the SpaceX Starship, designed for potential missions to the Moon and Mars, must carry enough fuel to decelerate and land safely. According to estimates, a fully fueled Starship can go from Low Earth Orbit (LEO) to Near Rectilinear Halo Orbit (NRHO) and back to LEO without refuelling, but only with a modest payload.
To land on the Moon, a spacecraft must fire its engines to slow down, and the amount of fuel required depends on the spacecraft's mass and engine efficiency. For a 120-ton Starship, approximately 450 tons of propellant are needed to reach the lunar surface from NRHO and return. This includes 300 tons of propellant for deorbit, descent, and landing, and an additional 150 tons for the return trip from the lunar surface to NRHO.
The design of the Starship also considers the need for in-orbit refueling for longer missions, such as those to Mars. The spacecraft would be refueled in low Earth orbit before heading to Mars, and the Sabatier reaction could be used to synthesize liquid methane and liquid oxygen, Starship's fuel, upon landing on Mars.
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In-space refuelling
The process of refuelling in space, also known as "cryogenic propellant transfer," presents unique challenges due to microgravity conditions. SpaceX plans to address this by utilising tanker versions of the Starship, establishing a fuelling depot in low Earth orbit. This approach will enable a passenger version of the Starship to dock, refuel, and continue its journey to the Moon or other destinations.
To support in-space refuelling, SpaceX is developing techniques for propellant transfer between two separate ships. They have already demonstrated proficiency in rendezvous and docking manoeuvres through their Dragon spacecraft, which has successfully docked with the International Space Station on numerous occasions. This experience will be leveraged for docking and refuelling operations during in-space refuelling.
NASA has estimated that 16 launches in quick succession would be required to partially refuel a Starship for a lunar landing due to cryogenic propellant boil-off. However, SpaceX has disputed this figure, suggesting that the number of launches will likely be lower, ranging from four to eight, or "10-ish" according to SpaceX's Jessica Jensen.
The successful demonstration of in-space refuelling will be a significant milestone, bringing the Moon and other deep-space destinations within reach. It will also enable the reuse of Starships for multiple missions and potentially allow for the utilisation of propellants produced from resources on the Moon or Mars in the future.
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Fuel for reaching Mars
Fuel is a critical component of any space mission, and reaching Mars is no exception. The type and amount of fuel required will depend on various factors, including the rocket's design, mission profile, and propulsion system. Let's delve into the details of fuelling a mission to Mars.
Rocket Fuel Types
The choice of fuel for a Mars mission is crucial. SpaceX's Starship, for instance, utilizes liquid oxygen and methane as propellants in its Raptor engines. Methane is preferred over kerosene due to its higher performance and resistance to deposit buildup from coking. Additionally, methane can be synthesized from carbon dioxide and water through the Sabatier reaction, making it a potential fuel source on Mars. This process will be essential for producing fuel on the Red Planet for the return journey or future missions.
Fuel Requirements for Mars Missions
The amount of fuel needed to reach Mars depends on the specific mission architecture. A typical mission involves launching a spacecraft into low Earth orbit (LEO), refueling it, and then sending it on a trajectory to Mars. The fuel requirements for this journey depend on the spacecraft's mass, engine efficiency, and delta-V (change in velocity). For instance, the delta-V needed for Starship to reach LEO is comparable to the delta-V required to travel from LEO to the Moon's surface and back.
In-Orbit Refueling
In-orbit refueling is a critical aspect of Mars missions. To reach Mars, a spacecraft will need to be refueled in LEO before departing for the Red Planet. This process ensures that the spacecraft has sufficient fuel for the journey and any necessary manoeuvres during the mission. The specific number of refueling flights will depend on the spacecraft's fuel capacity and mission requirements.
Fuel Production on Mars
Producing fuel on Mars is an essential consideration for future exploration and potential return journeys. The Sabatier reaction, which can generate methane and oxygen from carbon dioxide and water, could be utilized to create fuel on Mars. This process would enable the production of rocket fuel using local resources, reducing the need to transport large amounts of fuel from Earth.
Fuelling a mission to Mars involves careful planning, optimization of fuel types, and innovative technologies. The choice of propellants, such as methane and oxygen, considers both performance and the ability to synthesize fuel on Mars. In-orbit refueling ensures spacecraft have sufficient fuel for the journey, while advancements in engine design and fuel efficiency play pivotal roles in mission success. As space exploration progresses, the development of efficient fuels and propulsion systems will continue to be a critical area of focus for reaching Mars and beyond.
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Frequently asked questions
The SpaceX Starship's fuel tank can carry 330 t (730,000 lb) of liquid methane. The vehicle's tanks can hold a total of 1,500 t (3,300,000 lb) of propellant, including liquid oxygen.
According to NASA, 16 launches in quick succession are required to refuel the Starship for a single lunar landing. However, other estimates suggest that 4 to 8 launches may be sufficient. To reach the Moon from low Earth orbit (LEO), the Starship needs to carry 450t of propellant.
The Starship can refuel by docking with separately launched Starship propellant tanker spacecraft in orbit. This concept, if successful, could increase the spacecraft's range.
The Starship uses liquid methane and liquid oxygen as fuel.
