Rajan Wilcox
Fuel cells are an efficient and clean energy source that can be used to power a wide range of applications, from laptops to utility power stations. They work like batteries, but they do not need to be recharged and will continue to produce electricity as long as they are supplied with fuel. Hydrogen is the most commonly used fuel, but other hydrogen-rich fuels such as methanol, ammonia, and ethanol can also be used. Fuel cells produce electricity by converting the chemical energy in the fuel into electrical energy, with efficiencies ranging from 40% to 60%. The amount of energy produced by a fuel cell depends on the type of fuel cell and the number of cells connected in series, with some fuel cells producing up to 400 kW of power.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| How fuel cells produce energy | Fuel cells generate energy by converting the potential energy stored in hydrogen or other hydrogen-rich fuels such as methanol, ammonia, and ethanol. |
| Type of fuel used | Hydrogen, hydrocarbon fuels, natural gas, liquefied natural gas, ethanol, methanol, coal, etc. |
| Voltage | A typical fuel cell produces a voltage from 0.6 to 0.7 V at a full-rated load. |
| Efficiency | Fuel cells are between 40% and 60% energy efficient. However, when the fuel cell's waste heat is used to heat a building in a cogeneration system, this efficiency can increase to 85%. |
| Power generated | FuelCell Energy's standard MW-scale module contains four stacks, nets around 1.4 MW of power, and can make electricity for sites like universities or hospitals. |
| Applications | Fuel cells can be used in transportation, industrial/commercial/residential buildings, and long-term energy storage for the grid in reversible systems. |
| Durability | The DOE has set targets for fuel cell system lifetime under realistic operating conditions at 8,000 hours for light-duty vehicles, 30,000 hours for heavy-duty trucks, and 80,000 hours for distributed power systems. |
| Cost | Cost is a key challenge in the fuel cell industry. Platinum is one of the largest cost components of a direct hydrogen-fueled polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell. |
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What You'll Learn
Fuel cell efficiency
Fuel cells are a clean and highly efficient source of energy. They produce electricity and heat as long as they are supplied with fuel, such as hydrogen. They are unique in that they can use a wide range of fuels and feedstocks, and they can provide power for systems as large as a utility power station or as small as a laptop computer.
Fuel cells are more efficient than combustion engines because they directly convert the chemical energy stored in fuels to electricity, skipping the intermediate steps that result in energy losses. The energy efficiency of a fuel cell is generally between 40% and 60%, while a typical internal combustion engine is only about 25% energy efficient.
FuelCell Energy's carbonate fuel cell power plants, for example, have superior fuel efficiency compared to similarly sized combustion-based power systems because of the more direct conversion of fuel energy to electrical energy. Less fuel is needed to produce power in a high-efficiency fuel cell, resulting in lower total operating costs and reduced CO2 emissions.
The efficiency of fuel cells varies depending on their type and operating temperature. High-temperature fuel cells, such as carbonate fuel cells, can reach more than 60% efficiency and outperform similar-sized conventional energy sources. Phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFCs) operate at temperatures of 150 to 200 °C, and their efficiency can be enhanced from 40% to 50% to about 80% through cogeneration, where the waste heat is captured and used for heating and cooling. Alkaline fuel cells (AFCs) have a potential efficiency of 60% and can reach 80% to 90% in CHP (combined heat and power) applications. Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFCs) operate at efficiencies between 40% and 60%.
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Fuel cell applications
Fuel cells can be used in a wide range of applications, providing power for systems as large as a utility power station and as small as a laptop computer. They can be used in transportation, industrial, commercial, and residential buildings, as well as for long-term energy storage for the grid in reversible systems.
Fuel cells are also useful for backup power and emergency power in critical communications infrastructure, such as data centres, financial processing centres, defence and security communications facilities, air traffic control centres, hospital intensive care units, and prisons and remote law enforcement campuses.
Fuel cells can be used for material handling in warehouses, distribution centres, and manufacturing facilities. They can also be used in e-mobility applications, such as delivery fleets, airport fleets, long-haul trucking, port operations, and maritime operations.
Additionally, fuel cells can be used for stationary power generation, including telecommunications hubs, railways, microgrids, data centres, and utility-scale power production grids. Phosphoric acid fuel cells, for example, are used in stationary power production in hotels, hospitals, grocery stores, and office buildings.
Fuel cells can also be used in specialty vehicles such as forklifts, where they can be a cost-competitive alternative to traditional lead-acid batteries due to their rapid refuelling, constant voltage, and ability to operate in low-temperature environments.
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Hydrogen fuel
The efficiency of hydrogen fuel cells is notable, with the ability to exceed 60% efficiency in converting chemical energy directly into electrical energy. However, there are energy losses throughout the process of creating and utilizing hydrogen fuel. During the production of hydrogen through electrolysis, 20-30% of energy is lost. Additional energy losses occur during the compression and storage of hydrogen (10%) and the conversion of hydrogen into electricity (30%).
Despite these energy losses, hydrogen fuel cells offer advantages over conventional diesel and gasoline fuels. Hydrogen fuel cells have a higher energy efficiency compared to internal combustion engines, which lose approximately 50% of their energy to heat, whereas electric drivetrains lose only 10%. In terms of transportation, hydrogen fuel cells offer high torque similar to battery electric vehicles but at a lower weight. For example, the hydrogen fuel cell truck Nikola One has a range of about 500-750 miles with a 250-kWh battery pack estimated to weigh around 2.5-3 tons. In comparison, the battery electric Lion 8 with a 480-kWh battery pack and a 250-mile range is estimated to weigh 2-5 tons.
While hydrogen fuel cells show promise, there are still challenges to be addressed. One disadvantage is the range offered by hydrogen fuel cell vehicles. For instance, the Toyota Kenworth FCEV truck has a range of about 300 miles, which is significantly lower than diesel trucks that can go over 1,000 miles without refueling. Additionally, cost and durability remain key challenges in the widespread adoption of hydrogen fuel cell technology. However, with advancements in technology and increasing investment in the field, hydrogen has the potential to become a low-carbon, low-cost, and low-weight alternative fuel for heavy-duty transportation.
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Fuel cell cost
Fuel cells are electrochemical energy conversion devices that use hydrogen and oxygen to generate electricity, heat, and water. They are unique in their ability to use a wide range of fuels and feedstocks, and their potential applications vary from powering utility power stations to laptops.
The cost of fuel cells varies depending on their type, power output, and application. PEM Fuel Cells, for example, are one of the cheapest fuel cells on the market, with prices as low as $60. These fuel cells have an output power of only 0.27W, making them perfect for educational purposes. On the other hand, the H-12 fuel cell stack, with an integrated cooling fan and a rated power of 12W, costs around $450.
For more powerful applications, the price increases significantly. The H-100 fuel cell stack, with a rated power of 100W, can be used to power small motorboats or for research purposes, and it costs around $2,100. The 2.5kW T-Series fuel cell, designed for telecommunications and backup power, can range in price from $10,000 to $15,000.
Fuel cell electric vehicles are also available for purchase or lease in the US, with prices ranging from approximately $58,300 or $379-$389 per month. These vehicles often come with access to free hydrogen fuel for a limited time.
It is important to note that cost is a key challenge in the fuel cell industry, along with performance and durability. Research and development efforts are focused on reducing costs by improving manufacturing processes and decreasing the reliance on expensive materials, such as platinum, used in fuel cell components.
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Fuel cell durability
The US Department of Energy (DOE) has set targets for fuel cell system lifetime under realistic operating conditions: 8,000 hours for light-duty vehicles, 30,000 hours for heavy-duty trucks, and 80,000 hours for distributed power systems. Realistic operating conditions include dynamic and harsh conditions such as starting and stopping, freezing and thawing, impurities in fuel and air, and humidity.
Current durability research primarily focuses on the single cell and stack levels, which differ from the usage scenarios of actual vehicles. There is a lack of research on developing durability test cycles at the fuel cell system level. However, some researchers have proposed universal models for test cycles, such as the China automotive test cycle, which can effectively evaluate the durability performance of fuel cells.
Extensive research has been conducted on the factors affecting fuel cell stack performance. Defining the test cycle is crucial in durability research, and there are currently two primary methods for developing test cycles to analyse fuel cell durability. The first method involves designing the test cycle based on factors affecting the fuel cell's longevity, such as idling and full-power conditions. The second method involves creating a test cycle based on actual road conditions, such as the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC).
To improve fuel cell durability, there is a focus on reducing the cost of platinum group metals (PGMs) used in fuel cells, as platinum is one of the largest cost components. Approaches aim to increase PGM activity and utilisation while reducing their content in catalysts for long-term applications.
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Frequently asked questions
Fuel cells can produce energy in the range of 40% to 60% efficiency, with some types reaching up to 90% efficiency in Combined Heat and Power (CHP) applications. The amount of energy produced depends on the type of fuel cell and the fuel used. For example, Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFCs) operate with an efficiency of 40% to 60%.
The efficiency of a fuel cell is influenced by the type of fuel and electrolyte used, as well as the operating temperature. Some fuel cells, like PEMFCs, use platinum as a catalyst, which increases costs but allows for efficient operation at cooler temperatures. Other types, like carbonate fuel cells, operate at higher temperatures, eliminating the need for expensive catalysts.
Fuel cells are significantly more energy-efficient than gas-powered engines, which can lose up to 80% of their energy through heat, evaporation, and other factors. Fuel cells are also more efficient than traditional coal power plants, which have an energy efficiency of about one-third.
Batteries have lower energy losses than fuel cells and can reuse between 80% to 90% of their stored chemical energy. However, fuel cells have the advantage of faster refuelling times, making them attractive for commercial vehicle applications.
A typical fuel cell produces a voltage of about 0.6 to 0.7 volts at a full-rated load. The voltage decreases as the current increases due to factors such as mass transport loss. To increase the voltage output, multiple fuel cells can be combined in series, forming a fuel cell stack.
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