Sylvie Willis
A fuel cell is a device that generates electricity through an electrochemical reaction, not combustion. In a fuel cell, hydrogen and oxygen are combined to generate electricity, heat, and water. Individual fuel cells produce relatively small electrical potentials, about 0.7 volts, so cells are often 'stacked' to create sufficient voltage. The energy efficiency of a fuel cell is generally between 40% and 60%, but this can increase to 85% if waste heat is captured in a cogeneration scheme.
Characteristics and Values of Fuel Cells
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| How fuel cells produce electricity | Fuel cells use the chemical energy of hydrogen or other fuels to produce electricity through an electrochemical reaction, not combustion. |
| Required components | An anode, a cathode, and an electrolyte. |
| How long they can produce electricity | Continuously, as long as fuel and oxygen are supplied. |
| Efficiency | Generally between 40% and 60%, but can increase to 85% if waste heat is captured in a cogeneration scheme. AFCs have a potential efficiency of 60% and 80% to 90% in CHP applications. |
| Fuel used | Hydrogen, or other fuels such as methanol or phosphoric acid. |
| Byproducts | Water, heat, and small amounts of nitrogen dioxide and other emissions depending on the fuel source. |
| Applications | Transportation, industrial/commercial/residential buildings, long-term energy storage, and space programs. |
| Cost considerations | Platinum is one of the largest cost components of a direct hydrogen fuel cell, so there is a focus on reducing platinum content and exploring PGM-free catalyst approaches. |
| Durability targets | 8,000 hours for light-duty vehicles, 30,000 hours for heavy-duty trucks, and 80,000 hours for distributed power systems. |
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What You'll Learn
Fuel cell efficiency
Fuel cells are electrochemical cells that convert the chemical energy of a fuel (often hydrogen) and an oxidizing agent (usually oxygen from the air) into electricity. This direct conversion of chemical energy to electrical energy is more efficient than the combustion process used to generate electricity, which must first convert chemical energy to heat, then to mechanical work, and finally to electricity. Each additional step causes the overall efficiency to drop.
The energy efficiency of a fuel cell is generally between 40% and 60%, according to the U.S. Department of Energy. However, if waste heat is captured in a cogeneration scheme, efficiencies of up to 85% can be obtained. Cogeneration, or combined heat and power (CHP) systems, use a heat exchanger or heat recovery unit to recover energy from the exhaust downstream of the fuel cell, transitioning that heat to useful energy. This extra energy captured from waste heat is a significant boost to the overall efficiency of the system.
High-temperature fuel cells, such as carbonate fuel cells, can reach more than 60% efficiency and outperform similar-sized conventional energy sources like combustion engines and gas turbines. FuelCell Energy's high-temperature power plants are an example of this type of fuel cell, operating at temperatures of more than 1000 degrees Fahrenheit. These plants are uniquely suited to provide high-quality thermal energy, which can be used in a variety of ways, such as for steam production or to support bakery operations, reducing the need for combustion fuel in boilers.
Phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFCs) are another example of high-temperature fuel cells, operating at temperatures of 150 to 200 °C. The heat produced by these cells can be used to produce steam for air conditioning systems or any other thermal energy-consuming system. Using this heat in cogeneration can enhance the efficiency of PAFCs from 40-50% to about 80%.
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Fuel cell applications
Fuel cells can be used in a wide range of applications, providing power for systems as large as a utility power station and as small as a laptop computer. They are increasingly seen as a vital technology for greening the energy supply chain.
One of the key applications of fuel cells is in the transportation sector. Fuel cells can be used in vehicles such as cars, trucks, and forklifts, offering several advantages over traditional lead-acid batteries. For example, fuel cells can be rapidly refuelled, eliminating the time and cost associated with battery swapping and charging. Additionally, fuel cells do not suffer from reduced performance in low-temperature environments, making them ideal for freezer warehouses.
Fuel cells also have applications in industrial, commercial, and residential buildings. They can provide primary power, heating, and cooling for offices, data centres, financial institutions, defence communications facilities, air traffic control centres, hospitals, and law enforcement campuses. In these settings, fuel cells offer reliable, grid-independent power with reduced emissions compared to conventional power technologies.
Another important application of fuel cells is in backup power systems. Fuel cells can provide emergency power for critical communications infrastructure, ensuring grid reliability and reducing the potential financial loss and security vulnerabilities associated with grid failures.
Furthermore, fuel cells can be used for material handling in warehouses, distribution centres, and manufacturing facilities, enhancing productivity and efficiency in these settings.
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Electrochemical reactions
A fuel cell is an electrochemical cell that converts the chemical energy of a fuel (typically hydrogen) and an oxidising agent (usually oxygen) into electricity through a pair of redox reactions. This process is known as an electrochemical reaction, which does not involve combustion.
A fuel cell consists of two electrodes: a negative electrode (anode) and a positive electrode (cathode), with an electrolyte in between. The electrolyte allows ions, often positively charged hydrogen ions (protons), to move between the two sides of the fuel cell.
At the anode, a catalyst causes the hydrogen fuel to undergo oxidation reactions, generating positively charged hydrogen ions (protons) and electrons. The electrons are forced through an external circuit, creating a flow of electricity. At the same time, the protons pass through the porous electrolyte membrane to the cathode.
At the cathode, another catalyst causes the ions, electrons, and oxygen to react, forming water and heat. This reaction produces electricity, water, and heat as byproducts.
The amount of electricity produced by a fuel cell depends on the efficiency of the cell and the fuel source. Individual fuel cells produce a small electrical potential of about 0.7 volts, so multiple cells are often stacked to create sufficient voltage. The energy efficiency of a fuel cell is generally between 40% and 60%, but can exceed 60% in certain cases. If waste heat is captured in a cogeneration scheme, efficiencies of up to 85% can be achieved.
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Fuel cell types
Fuel cells are classified based on the type of electrolyte used, the temperature ranges during operation, and the fuel used. The most common fuel used in fuel cells is hydrogen, but fuel cells can also use other fuels, such as methane, diesel, and methanol. Here are some of the different types of fuel cells:
Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFC)
These fuel cells use a proton-exchange membrane to conduct protons from the anode to the cathode. PEMFCs operate at temperatures below 100°C and are widely used in vehicle applications. They are also known as polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) or polymer electrolyte fuel cells (SPEFCs). They are currently the most popular type of fuel cell, especially in terms of mass production.
Direct Methanol Fuel Cells (DMFC)
DMFCs use a polymer membrane as an electrolyte and methanol as fuel. They operate at temperatures below 60°C and are primarily used for portable power applications. DMFCs are widely used due to their straightforward handling and are often used as range extenders for electric vehicles.
Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells (PAFC)
PAFCs use liquid phosphoric acid as an electrolyte and pure hydrogen as fuel. They operate at temperatures around 180°C and are used as stationary power generators. These fuel cells are not very electrically efficient.
Alkaline Fuel Cells
Alkaline fuel cells require pure hydrogen fuel and can operate over a wide temperature range. They do not usually need to be heated before operating. These fuel cells have been used successfully in space travel and powering submarines.
Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFCs)
MCFCs operate at very high temperatures, around 650°C, and must be heated to this temperature before they will operate.
Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFC)
SOFCs have a longer start-up time than PEMFCs, taking around 10 minutes to start up.
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Fuel cell costs
Fuel cells are electrochemical cells that produce electricity through the conversion of chemical energy from fuels (often hydrogen) and an oxidizing agent (usually oxygen). The cost of fuel cells varies depending on their type, power output, and specific applications.
One of the cheapest fuel cells available is the PEM Fuel Cell, which has an output power of 0.27 W and is commonly used in educational settings to teach children about hydrogen and renewable energy. This type of fuel cell can cost as little as $60.
For more advanced applications, the price of fuel cells increases. For example, the H-12 fuel cell stack, which has a rated power of 12 W and is suitable for classroom demonstrations and powering basic domestic appliances, has a starting price of around $450.
The H-100 fuel cell stack, with a rated power of 100 W, is designed for various personal and research applications, including powering small motorboats. This type of fuel cell typically starts at around $2,100.
The H-1000 XP Fuel Cell Stack is a more powerful system designed specifically for powering hydrogen vehicles. While the exact price is not mentioned, fuel cells in this category generally have prices ranging from $9,000 to over $20,000, depending on the specific model and system requirements.
The 2.5kW T-Series fuel cell, designed for telecommunications and backup power applications, typically costs around $10,000 to $15,000. This type of fuel cell is crucial for maintaining connections during power outages.
The cost of fuel cells also depends on the materials used in their construction. For example, platinum is one of the most expensive components in direct hydrogen-fuelled polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells, driving up the overall system cost. To address this, researchers are exploring ways to reduce the amount of platinum required or even replace it with alternative catalysts.
Efforts are being made to enhance the efficiency, durability, and cost-effectiveness of fuel cells. This includes developing advanced ion-exchange membrane electrolytes, improving membrane electrode assemblies (MEAs), and optimizing system design through modelling. These advancements aim to make fuel cells a more viable and affordable option for various applications, including transportation, power generation, and long-term energy storage.
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Frequently asked questions
A fuel cell can produce electricity continuously as long as it has a fuel source. Individual fuel cells produce about 0.7 volts of electricity, so they are often stacked to create sufficient voltage.
A fuel cell is a device that generates electricity through an electrochemical reaction. It is composed of an anode, a cathode, and an electrolyte membrane.
A fuel cell uses hydrogen and oxygen to generate electricity, heat, and water.
Fuel cells are clean, efficient, reliable, and quiet. They can operate at higher efficiencies than combustion engines and do not need to be periodically recharged.
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