Mercedes Mullins
Hydrogen is a clean fuel that can be used to power vehicles and generate electricity. Hydrogen fuel can be produced through various methods, including steam-methane reforming, electrolysis, microbial biomass conversion, and thermochemical water splitting. Hydrogen can be stored as a gas in large volumes in natural geological formations or in smaller volumes in pressurized stationary or portable tanks. Hydrogen vehicles, or fuel cell cars, produce electricity themselves through a process that transforms the fuel's chemical energy into electrical energy. This electricity then powers the car's electric motor. The hydrogen in the vehicle is stored in gaseous form in carbon-fiber reinforced tanks.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Hydrogen production methods | Steam reforming, biological processes, electrolysis, solar-driven processes, thermochemical water splitting |
| Hydrogen sources | Fossil fuels, biomass, water, natural gas, nuclear power, renewable power |
| Hydrogen storage | Gas, Liquid, high-pressure tube trailers, liquefied hydrogen tankers, fuel tanks, salt caverns, lined hard rock caverns, depleted oil and natural gas fields, aquifers, cryogenic tanks |
| Hydrogen applications | Transportation, electricity generation, rocket fuel, portable power, industrial use |
| Hydrogen benefits | Clean fuel, zero emissions, efficient power plant, short refueling time |
| Hydrogen challenges | Expensive, safety concerns, limited infrastructure, technical challenges, low energy density, high compressibility |
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What You'll Learn
- Hydrogen can be produced from fossil fuels, biomass, and water through electrolysis
- Electrolysis: An electric current splits water into hydrogen and oxygen
- Steam reforming: A high-temperature process in which steam reacts with a hydrocarbon fuel to produce hydrogen
- Green hydrogen: Produced from renewable electricity via electrolysis of water
- Hydrogen liquefaction and cryogenic liquid storage: Hydrogen can be liquefied by cooling it to below -423°F (-253°C)
Hydrogen can be produced from fossil fuels, biomass, and water through electrolysis
Hydrogen is a clean fuel that, when consumed in a fuel cell, only produces water as a byproduct. Hydrogen can be produced from a variety of sources, including fossil fuels, biomass, and water through electrolysis.
Fossil Fuels
Commercial hydrogen producers and petroleum refineries use steam-methane reforming to separate hydrogen atoms from carbon atoms in methane (CH4). This process involves high-temperature steam (1,300°F to 1,800°F) under high pressure reacting with methane in the presence of a catalyst to produce hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and a small amount of carbon dioxide (CO2). Steam-methane reforming accounts for nearly all commercially produced hydrogen in the United States.
Biomass
Biological processes that use microbes, such as bacteria and microalgae, can produce hydrogen through biological reactions. In microbial biomass conversion, these microbes break down organic matter like biomass or wastewater to produce hydrogen. Photobiological processes use sunlight as an energy source, and thermochemical processes can convert biomass into gas or liquids and separate the hydrogen.
Water
Electrolysis is a promising method for carbon-free hydrogen production from renewable and nuclear resources. It involves using electricity to split water into hydrogen and oxygen in a unit called an electrolyzer. Electrolysis itself does not produce any byproducts other than hydrogen and oxygen. The electricity for electrolysis can come from renewable sources, nuclear energy, or fossil fuels. Electrolysis is commonly used in schools to demonstrate chemical reactions and hydrogen production.
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Electrolysis: An electric current splits water into hydrogen and oxygen
Electrolysis is a process that uses electricity to split water into hydrogen and oxygen. This process occurs in an electrolyzer, which functions similarly to a fuel cell but in reverse. While a fuel cell uses the energy of a hydrogen molecule, an electrolyzer creates hydrogen from water molecules. Electrolysis is a promising method for producing hydrogen from water, especially if the electricity used comes from renewable sources such as solar or wind power. In this case, the resulting hydrogen is also considered renewable and offers emissions benefits.
Electrolysis can be performed at various pressures and temperatures, with high-pressure electrolysis and low-pressure electrolysis being the most common methods. Other emerging electrochemical processes include high-temperature electrolysis and carbon-assisted electrolysis. The current best processes for water electrolysis have an effective electrical efficiency of 70-80%, meaning that producing 1 kg of hydrogen requires 50-55 kWh of electricity.
Electrolysis is an essential process in the context of hydrogen fuel production. Hydrogen fuel is a clean energy source that can be used in transportation and electricity generation applications. Hydrogen vehicles, for example, use fuel cells to convert the hydrogen in their fuel tanks into electricity, resulting in zero local emissions. However, the widespread adoption of hydrogen fuel faces challenges due to the high costs of fuel cells and the limited availability of hydrogen fuelling stations.
The safe and efficient storage of hydrogen is another critical aspect of its potential as a fuel source. Hydrogen needs to be stored under high pressure to achieve practical energy density for various applications. Different types of hydrogen tanks, such as Type 3 and Type 4 tanks, have been developed to meet this requirement. Type 3 tanks are commonly used in vehicles, offering higher pressure capacity and reduced weight compared to previous designs. Type 4 tanks represent the current state-of-the-art in high-pressure hydrogen storage for mobile applications, utilizing a polymer liner with a full composite overwrap.
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Steam reforming: A high-temperature process in which steam reacts with a hydrocarbon fuel to produce hydrogen
Steam reforming is a thermal process for hydrogen production that involves reacting steam with a hydrocarbon fuel at high temperatures. This process is typically carried out at temperatures between 700°C and 1,000°C, with an outlet temperature range of 815°C to 925°C. The high temperatures make steam reforming a slow process to start up, and it requires costly, high-temperature materials. The reaction is endothermic, meaning that heat must be supplied for the reaction to proceed.
The steam reforming process converts hydrocarbons into methane, carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide. The methane then reacts with water at high temperatures and constant pressure to produce hydrogen. The carbon monoxide produced can be converted into carbon dioxide and more hydrogen through a process called the water-gas shift reaction. This reaction further increases the yield of hydrogen.
The steam reforming process commonly uses natural gas as its feedstock, and it is the most widely used method for hydrogen production today, accounting for about 95% of all hydrogen production. Other fossil fuels such as petroleum, coal, diesel, and renewable liquid fuels can also be used. The use of alternative fuels like biogas and biomass results in lower emissions but has disadvantages such as lower hydrogen purity and higher purification costs.
The reactors used in steam reforming consist of long and narrow tubes placed within a combustion chamber, which provides the energy needed to maintain a constant temperature. The tubes contain a mixture of steam and methane, along with a nickel catalyst. The high operating temperature necessitates catalysts with a high surface-area-to-volume ratio to overcome diffusion limitations.
Steam reforming plays a crucial role in producing hydrogen for fuel cells, especially in large-scale industrial applications. It is an established technology with a high efficiency of around 60% to 75% when using natural gas. However, the capital costs of steam reforming plants can be prohibitive for small to medium-sized applications.
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Green hydrogen: Produced from renewable electricity via electrolysis of water
Hydrogen is a clean fuel that can be used in cars, houses, and for portable power. It can be produced from a variety of resources, such as natural gas, nuclear power, biomass, and renewable power like solar and wind.
One method of hydrogen production is electrolysis, a promising option for carbon-free hydrogen production from renewable and nuclear resources. Electrolysis uses electricity to split water into hydrogen and oxygen. This occurs in a unit called an electrolyzer, which can range in size from small, appliance-size equipment to large-scale, central production facilities. Electrolyzers consist of an anode and a cathode separated by an electrolyte, and the basic chemistry happening within is essentially the same across different technologies.
There are two main types of electrolyzers: alkaline and PEM (Proton Exchange Membrane). Alkaline electrolysis is a well-established technology that uses two electrodes separated by a porous diaphragm and a liquid alkaline solution as the electrolyte. PEM electrolysis, on the other hand, uses pure water and a solid polymer electrolyte instead of a liquid solution. The electricity splits the water into hydrogen and oxygen, with hydrogen protons passing through the membrane to form H2 gas on the cathode side. PEM electrolyzers are well-suited for use with volatile renewable energy sources due to their fast ramp-up/down capabilities and wide dynamic operating range.
Electrolysis for green hydrogen production can utilize renewable energy sources such as solar, geothermal, wind, wave, and tidal energy, and hydropower. This allows for the production of hydrogen with virtually zero greenhouse gas emissions, making it an attractive fuel option for transportation and electricity generation applications.
The infrastructure for distributing hydrogen to fueling stations for hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles is still being developed, with current distribution methods including pipelines, high-pressure tube trailers, and liquefied hydrogen tankers. Hydrogen refueling through special pumps is constantly being expanded worldwide, with vehicle manufacturers joining initiatives to drive the expansion of the infrastructure.
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Hydrogen liquefaction and cryogenic liquid storage: Hydrogen can be liquefied by cooling it to below -423°F (-253°C)
Hydrogen liquefaction is a process that involves cooling hydrogen to extremely low temperatures to transform it into a liquid state. This process, known as cryogenic liquefaction, is essential for the efficient storage and transportation of hydrogen, particularly in large quantities.
Hydrogen liquefaction addresses the challenge of storing and transporting hydrogen due to its low energy density in its gaseous state. By liquefying hydrogen, the volume is significantly reduced, making it more feasible to store and transport larger amounts. This is especially advantageous for applications such as fuelling stations for hydrogen-powered vehicles, where efficient storage and distribution are crucial.
The liquefaction process requires specialized equipment capable of reaching cryogenic temperatures. Hydrogen has a boiling point of approximately -253°C at atmospheric pressure, and achieving this temperature demands a significant amount of energy. Larger plants with higher liquefaction capacities tend to have higher initial costs, but the cost per kilogram of liquefied hydrogen decreases as the scale increases.
Cryogenic liquid storage of hydrogen involves storing it in specially insulated tanks under pressure. These tanks are designed to maintain cryogenic temperatures and are equipped with features for cooling, heating, and venting. The tanks vary in size, typically ranging from 1.5 m3 (100 kg) to 75.0 m3 (5,000 kg).
While cryogenic liquid storage offers advantages in terms of high energy density and mature technology, there are challenges associated with the energy-intensive liquefaction process. The high energy consumption during liquefaction contributes to increased operating costs. Additionally, there is a risk of hydrogen loss through boil-off during storage, further impacting the overall efficiency of the process. Nevertheless, with ongoing advancements and innovations, liquid hydrogen is expected to play a significant role in the emerging global hydrogen economy.
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Frequently asked questions
A hydrogen fuel tank is used to store hydrogen under pressure. Hydrogen fuel tanks are used in a variety of applications, including fuel cell and electrolyzer systems, rockets, and space flight.
Hydrogen can be produced from a variety of domestic resources, such as natural gas, nuclear power, biomass, and renewable power like solar and wind. Hydrogen is often produced through steam reforming, a high-temperature process in which steam reacts with a hydrocarbon fuel to produce hydrogen.
Hydrogen can be stored as a gas in large volumes in natural geological formations such as salt caverns, lined hard rock caverns, depleted oil and gas fields, and aquifers. Gaseous hydrogen can also be stored in smaller volumes in pressurized stationary or portable tanks.
Hydrogen fuel tanks enable the use of hydrogen as a clean and renewable energy source. Hydrogen vehicles produce electricity themselves, resulting in zero local emissions. Hydrogen fuel tanks also offer a short refueling time compared to electric vehicles.
