Regan Brown
Leaded gasoline was invented in the 1920s by General Motors engineer Thomas Midgley Jr. to reduce engine knock. However, it was discovered to be toxic to the human brain, especially in children, and to cause a range of health issues, including heart disease, high blood pressure, strokes, kidney disease, and reduced fertility. Despite this knowledge, it took decades for leaded gasoline to be phased out due to various factors, including the influence of companies with stakes in continued lead use and the need for time to develop alternative fuels and technologies. The phase-out of leaded gasoline was finally achieved in 2021, with Algeria being the last country to use up its stockpile. While leaded gasoline is no longer used in cars, it is still allowed for specific purposes, such as in aircraft, racing cars, farm equipment, and marine engines.
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What You'll Learn
Leaded fuel is toxic to humans and the environment
Leaded fuel is toxic to humans. If absorbed by the skin, it results in immediate lead poisoning. Lead exposure can cause a range of health issues throughout the body, including heart disease, high blood pressure, strokes, kidney disease, and reduced fertility. It can also affect the nervous system, immune system, and reproductive and developmental systems. Once in the body, lead distributes throughout the blood and accumulates in the bones.
Leaded fuel is also toxic to the environment. It easily contaminates air, water, and soil. Elevated lead levels in the environment can result in decreased growth and reproduction in plants and animals, and can cause neurological effects in vertebrates. The transport sector, which includes vehicles that use leaded fuel, contributes to local air, water, and soil pollution, as well as the global climate crisis.
The phase-out of leaded gasoline has been a long process. In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency began an effort to phase out leaded gasoline in 1973, and by the mid-1980s, most gasoline used in the country was unleaded. However, leaded gasoline for passenger cars was not fully banned in the US until 1996. The UN Environment Programme also spent 19 years trying to eliminate leaded gasoline globally, with Algeria being the last country to switch in July 2021.
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The Clean Air Act of 1970 and emissions regulations
The Clean Air Act of 1970 (1970 CAA) was a landmark piece of legislation that played a crucial role in reducing air pollution and improving air quality in the United States. The Act significantly expanded the federal government's role in regulating emissions from both stationary and mobile sources, such as industrial facilities and vehicles.
One of the key components of the 1970 CAA was the requirement for the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to develop comprehensive emission standards. The EPA was tasked with creating the National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAPs), which aimed to reduce the release of hazardous substances into the air. These standards were health-based and focused on protecting public health and welfare. The EPA was also authorised to establish National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) to ensure consistent air quality across all states.
The 1970 CAA had a significant impact on the automotive industry. It led to the development of new, cleaner generations of cars that could not run on leaded gasoline. Leaded gasoline, which had been in use since the 1920s, was found to have toxic effects on human health and the environment. The transition to unleaded gasoline was gradual, with the United States beginning to phase out leaded gasoline in 1973, and by the mid-1980s, most gasoline used in the country was unleaded. However, it wasn't until 1996 that leaded gasoline for passenger cars was fully banned in the US, and even then, it could still be used in aircraft and off-road vehicles.
The Clean Air Act also established regulations for newly constructed and modified stationary sources, such as industrial facilities. These regulations, known as the New Source Performance Standards (NSPS), set requirements for emission reduction based on the best available technology. The EPA's first NSPS regulation covered a range of industrial facilities, including steam generators, incinerators, and plants that emitted pollutants such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, and particulate matter.
The 1970 CAA also imposed responsibilities on individual states to create plans to implement the Act's requirements through State Implementation Plans (SIPs). These plans outlined the steps that each state would take to achieve the NAAQS and reduce air pollution. The EPA provided guidance, reviewed, and approved these plans to ensure compliance with the Act's goals.
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Leaded fuel was damaging to catalytic converters
Leaded gasoline was invented in the 1920s by General Motors engineer Thomas Midgley Jr. During this time, automotive manufacturers were searching for a chemical that would reduce engine knock. Midgley Jr. added tetraethyl lead (TEL) to gasoline, which effectively silenced noisy engines. TEL achieved this noise reduction by raising the fuel's combustibility or octane levels. However, TEL was so toxic that if it were to be absorbed through the skin, it would result in immediate lead poisoning.
Despite the known health risks of lead, manufacturers chose to ignore them. In fact, companies with a stake in continued lead use, including General Motors, funded studies to create the false impression that leaded gasoline was safe, according to a BBC News story. It took decades for scientists to establish the damage that leaded gasoline was causing. By that point, virtually all the gasoline in the world had lead added to it.
In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) started an effort to phase out leaded gasoline in 1973. Starting in the 1970s, new vehicles were designed to run on unleaded gasoline. The new generation of cars couldn't run on leaded gasoline—it would destroy their catalytic converters. The use of catalytic converters became necessary to meet stricter emissions regulations outlined in the Clean Air Act of 1970, and leaded gasoline proved damaging to these devices.
By the mid-1980s, most gasoline used in the US was unleaded, although leaded gasoline for passenger cars wasn't fully banned in the US until 1996. Today, leaded gasoline is no longer used in cars and trucks, but it is still used in aviation, motorsports, and other off-road applications.
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The UN's campaign to eliminate leaded gasoline
The use of leaded gasoline in vehicles has been a global concern for decades, with the toxic fuel causing a range of health and environmental issues. In 2002, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) launched a campaign to eliminate leaded gasoline from road vehicles worldwide. This campaign, known as the Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles (PCFV), was a public-private alliance that brought together governments, businesses, and civil society to address the issue.
The use of lead in gasoline dates back to the 1920s when Thomas Midgley Jr., an engineer at General Motors, added tetraethyl lead to gasoline to improve engine performance and reduce engine knock. While this led to a significant increase in vehicle performance, it also had catastrophic consequences for human health and the environment. Leaded gasoline spread to every corner of the world, and with it came epidemics of heart disease, cancer, stroke, and developmental delays in children.
The dangers of leaded gasoline were recognised as early as the 1920s, with suspected lead poisoning causing deaths and serious health issues. However, it was not until the 1960s and 1970s that the evidence of health issues related to lead poisoning was widely acknowledged. By the 1970s, almost all petrol produced worldwide contained lead, and many countries began to phase out its use. Japan became the first country to completely ban leaded gasoline in 1986, followed by Austria, Canada, Slovakia, Denmark, and Sweden.
The UNEP's campaign faced resistance from local oil dealers, producers of lead, and the last remaining maker of tetraethyl lead, Innospec. However, the partnership registered victories in even some of the most isolated countries, such as the Democratic People's Republic of Korea. The campaign included raising awareness, providing technical assistance, and investing in refinery upgrades.
In August 2021, the United Nations announced that Algeria, the last country to use leaded petrol, had phased out its final reserves, marking the end of leaded fuel use in vehicles globally. The successful enforcement of the ban is estimated to save $2.44 trillion per year and prevent more than 1.2 million premature deaths annually. The UN plans to build on this success by pushing towards phasing out fossil fuels in cars and mandating the use of cleaner fuels and vehicles.
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The aviation industry still uses Avgas, a leaded fuel
The use of leaded fuel in cars has been phased out worldwide. However, the aviation industry still uses Avgas, a type of fuel that contains lead. Avgas, or aviation gasoline, is used in aircraft with spark-ignited internal combustion engines, also known as piston engines. It is a specialized fuel that is distinguished from conventional gasoline (petrol) used in motor vehicles. The use of lead in Avgas is an operational safety issue as the additive tetraethyl lead (TEL) boosts the octane levels of the fuel. TEL is a toxic lead-containing additive that aids in the lubrication of the engine, increases the octane rating, and prevents engine knocking or premature detonation.
While the phase-out of leaded gasoline in cars began in the 1970s, Avgas continues to be used in aviation due to the lack of a suitable replacement that meets the needs of all piston engine aircraft. Automotive gasoline is not a fully viable replacement for Avgas as many high-performance and turbocharged airplane engines require 100 octane fuel, and modifications are necessary to use lower-octane fuel. Additionally, the alloys used in aviation engine construction are chosen for their durability and compatibility with lead, and engine wear in the valves can be a potential problem with automotive gasoline conversions.
The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has been working with engine manufacturers and fuel producers to develop an unleaded alternative to Avgas. In 2012, the FAA established an Aviation Rulemaking Committee (ARC) involving the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and industry stakeholders to work on a transition to unleaded Avgas. However, no operationally safe and suitable replacement has been found that meets the octane requirements of all piston engine aircraft.
As of 2024, the annual US usage of Avgas was 180 million US gallons, with most of it containing lead. Avgas remains the most common piston-engine fuel in Europe as well. While there are concerns about the environmental impact of leaded aviation fuel, the small volume of aviation gasoline in the overall gasoline market and the critical purposes served by aircraft operating on leaded Avgas make it a complex issue.
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Frequently asked questions
Leaded fuel is fuel that contains tetraethyl lead (TEL), an organolead compound with the formula Pb(C2H5)4. TEL was added to fuel to reduce engine knock and raise combustibility or octane levels.
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) started an effort to phase out leaded gasoline in 1973 due to concerns about the health and environmental hazards associated with lead exposure. Leaded gasoline also damaged catalytic converters, which were mandated in the United States for 1975 and later model-year cars to meet tighter emissions regulations.
The phase-out of leaded gasoline began in the 1970s, and by the mid-1980s, most gasoline used in the U.S. was unleaded. However, leaded gasoline for passenger cars wasn't fully banned in the U.S. until 1996. Worldwide, the use of leaded gasoline in vehicles was officially ended in 2021, with Algeria being the last country to use up its stockpile.
Lead exposure can cause a range of health issues, including heart disease, high blood pressure, strokes, kidney disease, reduced fertility, and behavioural issues in children. It can also contaminate air, water, and soil.
Unleaded gasoline, which is more expensive but safer, has replaced leaded fuel for cars. However, leaded fuel is still used in aviation, motor sports, and other off-road uses.
