Sylvie Willis
The dominance of petroleum diesel can be attributed to several factors, including the history of diesel fuel development, the characteristics of diesel engines, and the availability and convenience of petroleum sources. Rudolf Diesel, a German scientist and inventor, created the compression-ignition engine in the late 19th century, which was initially designed to run on coal dust. However, the attention shifted to liquid petroleum products due to their potential advantages over coal. This decision set the course for the future of diesel fuel, as the fuel was named after its inventor, and the engine's widespread adoption led to the association of diesel with petroleum-based fuels. Before standardization, diesel engines used cheap fuel oils, including petroleum distillates in the United States and coal-tar creosote oil in Europe, but the introduction of motor-vehicle diesel engines in the 1930s created a demand for higher-quality fuels. The development of modern, high-quality diesel fuels gained momentum after World War II, and the subsequent standardization of diesel fuel solidified the dominance of petroleum diesel.
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What You'll Learn
Rudolf Diesel's preference for liquid petroleum products
Rudolf Diesel, the inventor of the compression-ignition reciprocating engine, originally designed an engine that ran on coal dust as fuel. However, he soon became interested in the by-products of crude oil refining, recognising that liquid petroleum products might be superior to coal. This led him to re-design his engine for use with liquid fuels, resulting in a successful prototype in 1895.
Diesel fuel, named after its inventor, is a mixture of hydrocarbons obtained from petroleum. The use of liquid petroleum products offered several advantages over coal. Firstly, they were cheaper because they were not being taxed at the time. Secondly, they had better ignition characteristics, which became increasingly important with the introduction of motor-vehicle diesel engines in the 1930s. Finally, the refining process for crude oil yields a range of useful products, including gasoline, jet fuel, liquefied petroleum gas, heating fuel, lubricating oil, wax, and asphalt. This versatility made petroleum-based products more attractive.
The most common type of diesel fuel today is a specific fractional distillate of petroleum fuel oil, produced by the fractional distillation of crude oil. This process results in a mixture of carbon chains containing between 9 and 25 carbon atoms per molecule. While biodiesel and other non-petroleum-based alternatives are gaining traction, petroleum diesel continues to dominate the market due to its history, availability, and the established infrastructure of oil refineries.
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The standardisation of diesel fuel
Prior to the standardisation of diesel fuel, diesel engines typically operated on cheap fuel oils. In the United States, these oils were distilled from petroleum, while in Europe, coal-tar creosote oil was used. Some diesel engines even utilised mixtures of fuels, such as petrol, kerosene, rapeseed oil, or lubricating oil, which were untaxed and therefore more affordable. However, with the introduction of motor-vehicle diesel engines in the 1930s, the need for higher-quality fuels with improved ignition characteristics arose.
Following World War II, the first modern high-quality diesel fuels were standardised. Notable standards during this period included the DIN 51601, VTL 9140-001, and NATO F 54 standards. In 1993, the DIN 51601 standard was replaced by the EN 590 standard, which remains in use within the European Union. This standardisation ensures that diesel fuel meets specific requirements for ignition quality and emissions.
Today, diesel fuel is standardised in many countries, with variations in specifications across different fuel grades and nations. For instance, in the European Union, the standard for diesel fuel is EN 590, while in the United States, the focus has shifted towards reducing the sulfur content of diesel fuel due to its harmful impact on human health and the environment. As a result, ultra-low-sulfur diesel (ULSD) has become the norm for on-highway and non-road use, with a sulfur content of 15 parts per million or less.
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The development of non-petroleum diesel
One of the earliest non-petroleum diesel fuels was coal-tar creosote oil, which was used in Europe before diesel fuel was standardised. Rudolf Diesel, the German inventor of the diesel engine, originally considered using vegetable seed oil as a fuel, an idea that has contributed to modern biodiesel production. Diesel engines prior to standardisation also ran on cheaper fuel oils, including mixtures of petrol, kerosene, rapeseed oil, and lubricating oil.
Biodiesel is now a widely recognised alternative to petroleum diesel. It is produced from vegetable oils or animal fats, which are mainly fatty acid methyl esters (FAME). Rapeseed oil is the most common source in Europe, while soybean oil is the most common in the US. Biodiesel can also be produced using ethanol, resulting in the production of ethyl esters.
Synthetic diesel is another alternative, produced from carbonaceous precursors, with natural gas being the most important source. Raw materials are converted into synthetic diesel through the Fischer-Tropsch process. Synthetic diesel is primarily composed of paraffins with low sulfur and aromatics content, and it is often blended with petroleum-derived diesel.
Biomass-based diesel fuels are also being used and developed, particularly in the United States. These fuels are derived from biomass, including animal fat, biogas, and natural gas. The use of biomass-based diesel fuels helps to reduce the environmental impact of diesel fuel by decreasing the amount of sulfur, which contributes to air pollution and is harmful to human health.
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The role of petroleum refineries
The first step in the refining process involves heating the crude oil in a furnace, followed by distillation, where the various components of the oil are separated based on their boiling points. This process results in the separation of crude oil into fractions, including gasoline, jet fuel, diesel fuel, and other products. The diesel fraction, consisting of hydrocarbons with boiling points between 150 to 380°C, is particularly important.
Petroleum refineries play a central role in the production of diesel fuel, which is a high-volume product of oil refineries. The most common type of diesel fuel is derived from petroleum, specifically through the fractional distillation of crude oil. This process involves heating crude oil at atmospheric pressure between 200 and 350 °C, resulting in a mixture of carbon chains that form the basis of diesel fuel. However, the demand for diesel fuel often exceeds the supply of "straight-run" diesel, so other sources, such as heavier fractions obtained through cracking processes, are blended in to meet the demand.
In addition to producing diesel fuel, petroleum refineries also contribute to the development of alternative diesel fuels. Biodiesel, for example, is obtained from vegetable oils or animal fats and is blended with petroleum-derived diesel to improve its properties. Synthetic diesel is another alternative, produced from natural gas through the Fischer-Tropsch process, resulting in a product with low sulfur and aromatics content. These alternatives are becoming increasingly important as the world seeks to reduce its reliance on petroleum-based fuels and move towards more sustainable energy sources.
Moreover, petroleum refineries have played a significant role in the standardization of diesel fuel. After World War II, the first modern high-quality diesel fuels were standardized, and these standards have continued to evolve over time. For instance, in 2006, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency mandated a reduction in the sulfur content of diesel fuel due to its harmful effects on human health. This led to the widespread adoption of ultra-low-sulfur diesel (ULSD) in the United States and other parts of the world.
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Diesel fuel's toxicity
Diesel fuel is a distillate fuel oil used in motor vehicles with compression-ignition engines. The most common type of diesel is a fractional distillate of petroleum fuel oil, but alternatives that are not derived from petroleum, such as biodiesel, biomass-to-liquid (BTL), or gas-to-liquid (GTL) diesel, are becoming more common.
Diesel fuel can be harmful to human health in several ways. Firstly, it can cause skin irritation if it comes into contact with the skin. Additionally, exposure to diesel exhaust has been linked to various health issues, including lung and bladder cancer, asthma, kidney damage, and increased blood pressure. Studies have also shown that the aromatic content of diesel fuel increases emission toxicity, leading to increased genotoxicity, inflammatory responses, and alterations in the cell cycle. The ultra-fine particles (UFPs) in diesel exhaust emissions have been associated with pulmonary and systematic inflammation and cardiovascular disorders.
The toxicity of diesel exhaust emissions has been a significant concern, with efforts made to reduce the sulfur content of diesel fuel. In 2006, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency mandated a reduction in the sulfur content of diesel fuel sold in the United States, resulting in the widespread adoption of ultra-low sulfur diesel (ULSD). This type of diesel fuel has a substantially lowered sulfur content, with similar standards being implemented in the European Union and other regions.
The use of alternative diesel fuels, such as biodiesel and synthetic diesel, can also help reduce toxicity. Biodiesel is derived from vegetable oil or animal fats and has lower sulfur and aromatics content. Synthetic diesel, produced through processes like hydrocracking and the Fischer-Tropsch process, often has mainly paraffins with low sulfur and aromatics content. These alternative fuels offer the potential for reduced toxicity compared to traditional petroleum-based diesel.
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Frequently asked questions
Petroleum diesel initially dominated other potential fuels because it was a by-product of the kerosene that was being refined from crude oil. Other fuels were also considered, such as vegetable seed oil, but petroleum diesel was more successful as a fuel for the compression-ignition engine invented by Rudolf Diesel in 1892.
Other sources of diesel fuel include biomass, animal fat, biogas, natural gas, and coal liquefaction.
Petroleum diesel has higher energy density than other sources, making it more suitable for use in motor vehicles. It also has better ignition characteristics and is more readily available.
